History of Indian Classical Music

The history of India and the history of music that developed in the succession of civilizations that populated this land is divided into three periods: Vedic, Mughal and Modern.

Vedic period

The origin of Indian music has been described through myth, without giving weight to actual historical authenticity and often attributing responsibility for the existence of this human activity to the divine. From a Western point of view it is unacceptable to think that God has transmitted this knowledge to men, but from an exclusively doctrinal point of view this is the only truth. Brahma, God of creation, taught Shiva, God of transformation, who passed this art to Saraswati, Goddess of knowledge, music and the arts. In turn the art was taught to Narad, who is credited with the invention of the Veena, who taught this art to the Gandharvas (Celestial Singers), Kinnar (Celestial Instrumentalists) and Apsaras (Celestial Dancers). Finally the two famous Rishis, Hanuman and Narada gave this knowledge to the whole earth. Some attribute to the god Shiva the paternity of five Ragas: Bhairava, Hindol, Megh, Deepak and Shri, a sixth, Kaishik, is attributed to Parvati, Shiva's companion. There are theories that simplify this tradition by declaring that all music arose from the sacred syllable AUM (OM), and this is the most probable of all. Regardless of myths, legends and religious dogmas, the phylogeny of Indian music finds ancient roots in the civilizations of the Indus Valley.

Indus Valley Civilization (3200 BC)

Based on the excavations carried out by the Department of Archeology of India of the Indus Valley Civilisation, this is considered to be prior to the Vedic Civilisation. Representations of dancers and musicians emerged from the excavations, particularly in the excavations of Harappa and Mohanjodaro, giving evidence of the diffusion of such intellectual activities, probably already of a high level.

Vedic Period (2500 BC)

Traditionally, the Vedic Period coincides with the rise to power of the Aryans, a population probably coming from Central Asia, in India. The Vedic period left a very important imprint on Indian culture, in particular through the Vedic literature composed of the Rig Veda, Yajurva Veda, Sam Veda and Atharva Veda. The Riga Veda is considered the oldest and is dated to 2500 BC, but these datings leave no time, given that the tradition was essentially oral and therefore it is impossible to establish a starting date. Furthermore, the Vedas have always existed, since before creation.

Music was very popular during the Vedic period. The vocal, instrumental or dance performance had already reached high levels, the 'mass' was nourished culturally. These arts probably accompanied the rituals of domestic and/or public religiosity, as still happens today. In fact it must be recognized that these arts are rituals and not entertainment. The dance was practiced by both sexes.

Classification of musical instruments.

Visit the Organology section dedicated to Indian musical instruments

The instruments were classified into the following categories:

Tata Vadya or Chordophones: The stringed instruments that were played with bow, plectrum or plucked with fingers. Veena, Kand Veena, Karkari Veena are mentioned.
Avanaddha Vadya or Membranophones: These are instruments that have a membrane stretched over a cylinder, the body of which can close or open at various distances from the stretched skin. This stimulated by direct percussion (with the hands or fingers), indirect (with beaters) and by rubbing, emits sounds. Examples include Mridanga, Dol, Dholak
Sushir Vadya or Aerophones: These are instruments whose sound is stimulated by the air induced by the musician. Bansuri and Shennai are mentioned.
Ghan Vadya or Idiophones: instruments that produce sound from the vibration of the body of the instrument itself. Examples include Jhanj, Kartal, Kanjeera.

The artists at the time led a perfectly chaste and austere lifestyle, were ready to sacrifice everything for music and were considered elite members. Some modern learned musicians claim that the music may come directly from the Sama Veda, but this hypothesis is risky for some since there is no close relationship between Indian classical music and the music produced in the Sama Veda period, which referred to a system of three tones: Udatta, high tone, Anudatta the low sound, and Swarit, on the nature of which there are differences of opinion, considering this as a tone halfway between the first two, or as a tone of higher frequency than Udatta , or with a lower frequency than Anudatta.

Another way of using these three tones was added: Rig, Gatha and Saman. The first used one note, the second synchronized two, the third three. In addition to this there was the use of a four-tone scale called Swantar. Later came the seven-tone scale called in descending order: Krishta, Pratham, Dwitiya, Tritiya, Chaturtha, Mandra and Ati Swara. According to the treatise of Panini Shiksha and Naradi Shiksha, Udatta contained Ni and Ga, seventh and third tones respectively, Anudatta contained Re and Dha, second and sixth tones respectively, while Sa, Ma and Pa, tonic, fourth and fifth tones respectively, were contained in Swarit. Regardless, the exact relationship of the frequency range between the Udatta, Anudatta and Swarit tones has not yet been clarified with certainty. From here arise the uncertainties about the actual connection between the music of the Vedic period and contemporary music.

Ramayana (1900 BC) and Mahabharata (1400 BC)

These two epic texts, as they are presented to us today, belong to a posthumous literary production, from the Sutra period, even if the content is much earlier than this era, where the Sutras, the epic texts and the books of the laws are from date to around 800 BC.

In the Ramayana, Ravan is mentioned as an excellent musician and music theorist. Along with a court of musicians, musical instruments are mentioned: Veena, Mridang, Dumdubhi and the Mudduk. It is said that Lava and Kush, sons of Prince Rama, received musical knowledge in the ashram of the sage Valmiki. The music in question is Marg Sangeet. In the Mahabarata the theory of consonance between notes is mentioned and the divinity Sri Krishna is described as a great expert on the bansuri (flute) and Arjun gives music lessons to Uttara, daughter of Raja Virat.

Panini (350 BC)

In his work he mentions the social activity of music, describing instruments and instrumentalists, vocal and dance concerts. The women's recreational activity was singing and dancing. The notes were already indicated with their initials as is still used today: Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni.

Magadha period (500 BC-322 BC)

During the period in which Bimbsar, Ajata Shatru and the kings of the Nand dynasty reigned in India, music, singing and dancing were popular arts among both men and women.

Mauryan period (322 BC-185 BC)

Chandra Gupta Maurya, Bindusar Shatru and Ashoka dominated India. The first of the three Chandra Gupta Maurya is considered a great lover of music, both as a listener and as a performer. Music, singing and dancing were very widespread at festivals, and the genre of folk or popular music was also spreading.

Kushan period (78 BC-185 AD)

Kanishka is mentioned as a great ruler of this period, a lover of music and literature, he opened his court to musicians, among whom Ashwa Ghosh was famous not only as a musician, but also as a playwright and philosopher. Famous production is the Buddha Charitra, a collection of poems that can be sung by both women and men.

Natya Shastra of Bharat (3rd century CE)

Shri Bharat, a more or less epic figure, wrote the work of Natya Shastra in the third century AD, a work which describes in detail the three arts Natya, Nritta and Nritya. There is also a theoretical exposition of Shruti, Swara, Grama, Murchana and eighteen types of Jati (Jati Gayan). He theorized for the first time the presence of twenty-two microtones within the natural scale.

Gupta period (320 AD-495 AD)

The Gupta empire spread over two centuries, bringing great revolutions in the field of music, where vocal, instrumental and dance skills reached their climax. All the rulers of this period are remembered as great lovers of music, and the whole Raga theory was introduced in this period. This is also remembered as the golden age of Indian music.

Samundra Gupta(335 AD - 375 AD)

Samundra Gupta is one of the first of the above mentioned dynasty. Remembered as a great lover of music and literature, he had great respect for poets and musicians. He first composed songs and it is mentioned that no one played the Veena better than him. His achievements were also celebrated with music and dance across the state.

Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya (375 AD- 413 AD)

Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya, a famous lover of music, hosted in his court the greatest poets and musicians of the time including the great Kalidas, who composed two famous dramas set to music on Raga: Megdhut and Shakuntala. During this period there was excellent progress in music and literature everywhere.

Matang Muni (6th century)

Matang Muni wrote a work entitled Brahaddeshi, and in this work we find the term Raga for the first time, in relation to the practice of his period. He names the Natyasastra among the various texts. This shows that there were already well-established standards.

Hashvardhan (606-647 AD)

Harshvardhan is remembered as a great lover of music and literature. As a playwright, three important works are attributed to him: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda. Sister Rajshri, a woman interested in organizing public events, is mentioned.

Rajput period (659-1200 AD)

During this period there was not much progress regarding Indian musical culture, all efforts were devoted to wars. This does not mean that in the Rajput dynasty there was great interest in music and that the courts hosted and supported musicians. Women during this period were educated in music, Sanskrit, painting and dance, often taking part in public works.

There was an important literary production of history, politics and drama. Worth remembering from this period is Bhavabhutt and his three works: Malti Madhava, Mahabir Charit and Uttar Ram Charit, in which music plays an important role. Regardless, the continuous Persian invasions, especially between the eleventh and twelfth centuries, slowed down the development of musical culture at court in this period.

Naradi Shiksha (10th century AD)

Narada, not to be confused with the divine Narada, wrote a treatise called Naradi Shiksha, which introduces for the first time the exposition of the Raga-Ragini, Putra Raga and Putra Badhu system, which remained in vogue for a long time in the classical music of North India.

Gita Govinda of Jaideva (12th century CE)

He is remembered as the greatest singer of this century, born in Kendula, near Bolpur in Bengal, the work entitled Gita Govinda, dedicated to the love between Radha and Krishna, is attributed to him.

Mughal period

The desire of the neighboring Persian dynasties to establish themselves in India became alive around the eleventh century. Indian music underwent notable changes and influences, not so much in theory but in the practical aspect, new styles and new instruments were introduced.

Pandit Sharang Deva (13th century AD)

Pandit Sharang Deva (1210-1247) was an excellent musician in the pay of Raja Devagiri in southern India. The Sangeet Ratna Kar is attributed to him, in which there is an in-depth description of the vocal, instrumental and dance techniques of this period. The work also contains the description of fundamental concepts such as Nad, Shruti, Swara, Grama, Murchana, Jati etc. Sangeet Ratnakar is considered an authoritative treatise on the ancient musical system, in which Shruti, microtones of equal measure, are taken as the unit of measurement to establish the shudda Swara.

Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316)

Alauddin Khilji was a great lover of music, a revolutionary of his time, he hosted brilliant minds at court, including the very famous Amir Khusro.

Hazrat Amir Khusro (1253-1325)

Amir Khusro was a famous musician, poet and minister in the court of Alauddin Khilji, he is also remembered as a man attentive to religious and spiritual precepts, obtained from his association with his Guru Hazrat Nizamuddin Aoulia. From this deep respect and love for the spiritual master came various compositions dedicated to him including Qoul, Qalbana, Qawali. It is said that the bond between master and disciple was so strong that Amir Khusro died just six months after the death of his Guru.

There were many innovations introduced by Amir Khusro, including new Ragas, new styles, new instruments and new rhythmic cycles. Among the Ragas introduced we remember Yaman Kalyan, Sajgiri, Zilaf, Sarpada, Zila, Shahan, Rat Ki Purya, Todi, Barari Todi, Asawari, Purvi, among the new styles we remember Qoul, Qalbana, Tarana, Khayal Naqsh, Nigar, Ghazal , Solah, Tillana, among the instruments the Sitar, the Tabla and the Dhol, among the new Tal, or rhythmic cycles, Khamsa, Sawari, Pahelwan, Farodast, Zanani-Sawari, Pashto, Theka Qowwali, Aada Choutal, Jhoomra, Jald Trital , Sool Fakhta.

In the same period and in the same court there was a famous singer Gopal Nayak, who introduced some new Ragas including Bada Hans Sarang, Piloo, Viram. It is said of a dispute between the two musicians where Amir Khushro demonstrated his superiority by re-proposing Gopal Nayak's art after hearing him only once.

During this period, there was a minstrel named Bijoo Bawara who composed songs of a mystical and philosophical nature.

Raga Tarangini (15th century AD)

Kavi Lochan wrote a treatise entitled Raga Tarangini in the mid-fifteenth century and is still regarded as a pillar of the Hindustani musical system. The nomenclature of Swara and Raga is similar to that which is still in vogue today. Kavi Lochan recognized the existence of twelve Swaras between the Shuddas and Vikrits, and classified the Ragas under twelve Thats. The Natural Scale was matched under Kafi's That. He also gave reference to some Raga Lakshanas.

Sultan Hussain Sharqi (1458 -1480)

Sultan Husain Shirqui of Jaunpur was very fond of music. It is said that he was a great Qawali singer alongside Amir Khusro. He introduced the chant "Kalawanti-Khayal" for the first time. He is called Kalawanti Khayal because "Qawalli-Khayal" had already been introduced by Amir Kushro. (note: Khayal, associated with the name of Sultan Husain Shirqui of Jaunpur, as its inventor, has become an important branch of Indian music). Further he also introduced some new Ragas, namely Jaunpuri, Sindh-Bhairavi, Jaunpuri-Todi, Raman Todi, Rasooli Todi, Sindura and twelve types of 'Shyam': Goud-Shyam, Malhar Shyam, Vasant Shyam, Poorvi SHyam, to name one few. Sultan Husain Shirqi was a great "Nayak" of his time.

Bhakti movement (15th century):

During this period the Bhakti movement began in northern India, Punjab and Bengal, which was spread to the public through music. The main exponents of this movement were Kabir, Nanak and Chaitanya who composed a rather large number of "Bhajans" which are current up to the present day. The Bhajans composed by Kabir (1440-1518) were sung in North India, the Bhajans composed by Nanak (1469-1538) were sung in Punjab and those composed by Chaitanya (1486-1527) were sung in Bengal. Thus music became popular through these Bhajans or devotional songs. These Bhajans led to the improvement of Bhajan-Sahitya (Bhajan literature) which gave further impetus to Bhajan Sangita. Indeed, the major impetus given by the Bhakti movement was the popularization of music and the formation of a literature of devotional songs. For example, Kabir composed a large number of Bhajans which are popular even today. He was followed by Nanak and Chaitanya who gave a strong impulse to the vocal literature of the religions they respectively represented and preached.

Raja Man Singh Tomar (1486-1516)

Raja Man Tomar was a great lover of music. He is supposed to have started the Dhrupad style of singing (note: according to many scholars including VN Bhatkhande and Raja SM Tagore, the Dhrupad style of singing is supposed to have been started by Raja Man of Gwalior). He was an expert Dhrupad singer, composed a number of Dhrupad compositions and encouraged Dhrupad singing. He was a great songwriter and his compositions are still relevant today. He loved "Samkirna Ragas". He introduced some new Ragas and named them after his beloved queen "Gujrani Rani". He then known as Gujari, Malgujari, Mangal Gujari. (note: in music he was an able composer as well as a munificent pratron and many of his compositions still survive to justify the extreme in which they were regarded by his contemporaries. He was particularly fond of the Samkirna Ragas, or mixed modes of which no less than four specimens take named after his favorite Gujrani queen, "Mrignani or doe-eyed". These are Gujari, Bahul Gujari, Malgujari and Mangal Gujari"). He wrote a book on music called Man Kutuhal. The most famous musician in his court c 'was Nayak Bakshu whose name is still considered alongside Tansen. There were also other famous singers in his court called Dalu, Bhagwan, Charju and Dhondu. Thus, during the time of Raja Man there was a great advancement in music and Dhrupad singing was particularly perfected and held in high regard.

Mughal King Babar (1526-1530):

Babar was a great lover of music. He himself was a good singer and a skilled songwriter. He had great respect for singers and rewarded expert singers and instrumentalists. He wrote a book on music considered to be of high quality. Thus during Babar's reign music was greatly improved.

Mughal King Humayun (1530-1556):

Humayun was also very fond of music. He had great respect for musicians. There were singers and instrument players employed in his court and they were better known as "Ahal-e-Murad". He did not neglect music even during his difficult days and found solace only in music. During his time, Sufis and saints spread their religious teaching through music. Thus music also spread through the saints.

Sur-Dynasty (Sixteenth century):

Sher Shah of Sur Dynesty had no love for music. But his son Islam Shah loved music very much. The two famous musicians, who later entered Akbar's service, named Ramdas, resident of Lucknow and Mahapattere, were employed in his court. Mohammad Shah Aadil also loved music. He was an accomplished musician of no small fame. The Raja of Malwa called Baz Bahadur is said to have received his musical training from Mohammad Shah Adil. Thus, in the Sur dynasty. Islam Shah Adil and Mohammad Shah Adil were just the two great patrons and lovers of music.

Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (15 October 1542 - 27 October 1605):

Akbar the GreatAkbar I, the third ruler of the Mughal Empire, ruled from 1556 to 1605, succeeding his father Humayun to the throne, under the regency of Bairam Khan. Thanks to the latter's assistance, the young emperor expanded and consolidated the Mughal dominions in the Indian subcontinent.

Akbar gradually extended the Mughal Empire across the entire Indian subcontinent through military, political, cultural and economic control. To unify the state, he implemented a system of centralized administration and adopted a policy of conciliation, cementing alliances through marriages and diplomacy. In order to maintain peace in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he implemented policies that gained the support of non-Muslim subjects, including the abolition of sectarian taxation and appointment to both civil and military positions of prominence.

Under his rule, Mughal India experienced a robust economy that tripled in size and wealth, leading to increased trade and greater patronage of Indo-Persian culture. Akbar's courts in Delhi, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri became renowned centers of arts, literature and learning, attracting figures of different faiths, poets, architects and artisans. Timurid and Indo-Islamic cultures merged into a distinctive style of Mughal arts, including painting and architecture. In an attempt perhaps to promote religious unity in his empire, Akbar introduced Din-i Ilahi, a syncretic creed based primarily on Islam and Hinduism, with influences from Zoroastrianism and Christianity.

After him Akbar, his son Salim, later known as Jahangir, ascended the imperial throne.
After the defeats suffered by the Mughal emperor Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540) at the hands of Sher Shah Suri's troops, Humayun fled westward, reaching the present-day region of Sindh. Here, he was united in marriage to Hamida Banu Begum, a fourteen-year-old girl and daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a Persian teacher affiliated with Humayun's younger brother, Hindal Mirza. Their son, Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar, was born the following year, on 25 October 1542[a] (fifth day of Rajab, 949 AH), within the Rajput fortress of Amarkot in Rajputana, located in the present-day region of Sindh. The parents had sought refuge with the local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad.
During Humayun's prolonged period of exile, Akbar was raised in Kabul by his paternal uncles, Kamran Mirza and Askari Mirza, as well as their wives, particularly that of Kamran Mirza. His adolescence was spent learning the arts of hunting, running and fighting. Although he had not acquired reading and writing skills, in the evenings he asked someone to read to him. On 20 November 1551, Humayun's younger brother Hindal Mirza lost his life in a battle against Kamran Mirza's troops, an event that struck Humayun with deep sorrow.

At about the age of nine, shortly after his appointment as governor of Ghazni, Akbar married Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, daughter of Hindal. Humayun entrusted Akbar with command of Hindal's forces, granting the imperial couple all of the latter's riches. Akbar's marriage celebration with Ruqaiya took place in Jalandhar, Punjab, when both were 14 years old.

Following the confusion resulting from the succession of Islam Shah, son of Sher Shah Suri, Humayun recaptured Delhi in 1555, with partial support from his Persian ally Tahmasp I. Shortly thereafter, Humayun died. Akbar's guardian, Bairam Khan, withheld the news of his death in preparation for Akbar's succession. The latter ascended the throne on 14 February 1556, at the age of 14, while he was engaged in a war against Sikandar Shah to reclaim the Mughal throne. At Kalanaur, Punjab, Bairam Khan enthroned him on a specially built platform (which still exists) and proclaimed him Shahanshah, or "King of kings". Bairam Khan ruled as regent until Akbar came of age.
Emperor Akbar was an ardent lover of music. He has done a lot for his development. He patronized musicians of true merit and his court was full of renowned musicians. He paid much attention to music and was the patron of all who practiced this enchanting art. According to historians, there were numerous musicians linked to his court: Hindus, Iranians, Turanians, Kashmiris, both men and women. There were as many as thirty-six musicians in his court, namely Tansen, Baba Ramdas, Subhan Khan, Surgyan Khan, Myan Chand, Vichitra Khan, Mohammad Khan Dhadi, Veermandal Khan, Baz Bahadur, Shitale Khan, Daud Dhadi, Sarod Khan, Myan Lal, Tan Tarang Khan (son of Tansen), Mullah Ishaq Dhadi, Usta Dost, Nayak Charju, Purbin Khan, Soordas (son of Ramdas), Chaand Khan, Rangsen, Sheik Dewan Dhadi, Rahamatullah, Mir Saiyad Ali, Ustad Yusuf, Kasim , Tash Beg, Sultan Hafiz Husain, Baihram Kuli, Ustad Shah Mohammed, Sultan Hashim, Ustad Mohammad Amin, Hafiz Khwaja Ali, Mir Abdulla, Pirjada and Ustad Mohammed Husain. Among them Tansen, Ramdas, Baz Bahadur and Tantarang Khan were the most outstanding musicians. Akbar was a great lover of music so much so that he acquired a good knowledge of this art. He could play Naqqarah with great skill, he also had excellent knowledge of music theory.