Vadaka Guna
The Śāstras delineate the merits of an accomplished instrumentalist or the deficiencies of a poorly trained one as follows:
Virtues:
1. Proficient in the techniques of hand, finger, and plectrum usage
2. Expert in reproducing the tonal quality of a composition
3. Mastery in Tāla, Laya, and accents
4. Skillful in employing manual activity bolas
5. Adept in discerning the positive and negative aspects of manual activity
6. Acquainted with the needs of the audience
7. Well-versed in the theory of sound
8. Knowledgeable about Sama and other tonal variations
9. Capable of covering up mistakes made by dancers, singers, or other instrumentalists
10. Proficient with Graha and Nyāsa notes
11. Acquainted with the quality standards of compositions and dance
12. Familiar with the sound quality distinctions among various instruments
13. Possesses a healthy body with a commanding presence
14. Skillful in demonstrating or reciting the Bolas and Vāṅīs
15. Practices distinguishing the quality of an instrument
16. Proficient in managing the onset, progression, and conclusion of sound
A musician who embodies all these qualities is considered the finest instrumentalist or Uttama Vādaka, while a musician lacking these virtues is termed Adhama Vādaka. These criteria apply to both melodic instrumentalists and percussionists.
Additionally, a chordophone instrumentalist should meet the following criteria:
1. Capable of tuning the instrument perfectly
2. Free from unpleasant mannerisms
3. Possesses a calm and unflappable mind
4. Shows respect towards older individuals
5. Avoids attempting to play faster than one's capability
6. Shuns vanity
7. Emphasizes cleanliness in playing the instrument
8. Refrains from trying to undermine the capabilities of fellow musicians
Vadi
This term has sparked numerous debates and misunderstandings among musicians and theorists. In the Svarādhyāya, the chapter dedicated to the notes of the Saṅgītaratnākara, there is an in-depth analysis of the Svaras, their origin, and their interrelationships. Notably, this chapter makes no reference to the Rāgas or melodies, as a separate chapter entitled Rāgadhyāya is exclusively dedicated to them. The Svarādhyāya delves into the nature of microtones or Ṥrutī, discussing their position in the scale and the relationships between notes.
To establish these relationships, each note is individually considered and termed Vādī, serving as a reference note. Subsequently, Saṁvādī, Anuvādī, and Vivādī are mentioned in relation to the Vādī. These relationships are standardized and universally acknowledged. In the Śāstra, the Saṁvādī is positioned on the ninth and thirteenth microtones from the Vādī, a concept that could be analogously viewed as the ratio between the fourth and fifth in Western theory. Terms like 'sonant,' 'consonant,' 'assonant,' and 'dissonant,' fundamental in the entire harmonic system of Euroculture music, can be employed to translate the terms Vādī, Saṁvādī, Anuvādī, and Vivādī, respectively.
The key difference lies in the exclusion of the octave concept in the Indian system, which, unlike the Western system, identifies the fourth and fifth as the primary consonants. The Śāstras lack a formal description of the concepts Anuvādī and Vivādī, but it is evident that the notes 'R' and 'D,' each consisting of three Ṥrutī, are Vivādī compared to all other notes. Moreover, notes composed of two Ṥrutī, 'n' and 'g,' are Vivādī only concerning 'R' and 'D' and Anuvādī concerning all other notes. Notes composed of four Ṥrutī maintain an Anuvādī relationship only with notes composed of two Ṥrutī, lacking a Saṁvādī or Anuvādī relationship with notes composed of three Ṥrutī and others.
In the Śāstras, the primary relationship is the Vādī-Saṁvādī or even-sounding-dissonant relationship, governed by two rules:
1. Saṁvādī is the note positioned on the ninth and thirteenth microtones from the Vādī.
2. Notes with the same number of microtones share a Vādī-Saṁvādī relationship among themselves.
Thus, in adherence to the first rule, if 'S' is Vādī, 'M' and 'P' are Saṁvādī. The introduction of the second rule prevents a Vādī-Saṁvādī relationship between 'M' and 'N' komal.
Vadya: Musical Instruments of India
Traditionally, there are four recognized categories of instruments:
a. Tanta or chordophones - instruments that generate sound by stimulating gut or metal strings, such as Vīṇā, Sītār, Piano, etc.
b. Śuṣira or aerophones - instruments that produce sound through the air, such as flutes, conch shells, harmoniums, etc.
c. Ānaddha or membranophones - percussion instruments with a membrane, such as Tablā, Dhāka, etc.
d. Ghana or idiophones - examples include Gong, Ghantā, Jalataraṅga, Kharatāla, Cimbali, etc.
The subsequent list comprises instruments exclusive to the tradition of Indian classical music, alongside those from Western musical culture that have found usage in India:
Ananda Lahari
A folk instrument, resembling a small-sized Dhola or oblong gourd with one side covered by a skin and the other open. A gut string, fastened with wooden pegs, extends from the center of the skin. Held under the left arm, the player uses the left hand to control the wooden part tightening the gut string. The string is struck with a plectrum, often made of coconut or wood, held by the index finger and thumb of the right hand. This action alters the string's frequency, with tension modifications made by the left hand. The instrument, primarily rhythmic, exhibits tonic variations. It is employed as an accompaniment for songs by Bāula practitioners, certain traveling musicians, and renunciant monks.
Bagpipe
Although its iconographic origins are associated with medieval England, this instrument predates common assumptions about its age. Consisting of three pipes tuned to the tonic, upper octave, and major third, serving as a drone for the melody produced on another pipe with a series of holes, akin to a flute, known as a cannello. Introduced to India during the era of English colonialism, despite its robust sound, it establishes its unique presence within orchestral contexts and proves particularly well-suited to the requirements of Indian music.
Bansuri
Bāṁŝī, Bāṁśī, or alternatively Bansuri, widely prevalent throughout India, this flute is typically crafted from a section of bamboo cane, although contemporary versions can be found in wood, brass, and terracotta. There are three variations of the Bansuri :
(i) Classical Bansuri - the most common form, featuring a blowing hole closely resembling that of a whistle, and considered one of the simplest in terms of sound emission.
(ii) Āḍ Bansuri or Muralī - played in a manner reminiscent of a bottle.
(iii) Veṇu - closely resembling the classical variety but held diagonally, requiring a more intricate blowing technique for sound emission. Presently, it is also known as Ṭipārā.
Bamsya
Bāṁyā is a clay or copper percussion that is played with the left hand together with the Tablā. Bāṁyā and Tablā form an inseparable pair and today it is the most used percussion for almost all Indian classical music, except for Dhrupada and Ālāpa. The skins have a mixture of rice flour and iron powder called Gāba or Sihay, off-centre with respect to the circumference and are pulled through leather or cotton laces necessary to tune the instrument.
Banjo
Banjo is a lute similar to the guitar, although the sound box is circular or teardrop shaped, has a wooden back, a metal ring on the side that holds the skin which acts as a soundboard and supports the bridge. Although it is rare to find it today in India, it was very successful in Calcutta around 1940.
Bassoon
Bassoon is an aerophone belonging to the oboe class, it has a fairly low sound.
Behalā or violin
In Indian tradition, for example, the Pinākī Vīṇā invented by Rāvaṇa, mythological king of Ceylon, is recognized as the archetype of this instrument. Some call it Bāhulin. However, there is a broad consensus in wanting to give the paternity of this instrument to India, even if the object as we know it today found its maximum expression and technological functionality in eighteenth-century Italy thanks to some important innovations. To date, in European classical music orchestras it is one of the main instruments to which solo parts are often dedicated. If traditionally the strings were made of gut or silk, today, as in most instruments, these are made of metal. The technique and positioning of the instrument in India has various differences compared to the West, where the tuning methods are also very different from each other.
Bherī
Also known as Mahā Nākāḍā, is typically crafted from a telescopic brass tube. Its sound emission technique mirrors that of a horn or conch. Originally employed as a military instrument, today it is primarily utilized in ceremonial contexts.
Horn
This European instrument, resembling a trumpet but without pistons, valves, or holes, maintains a shorter and solid structure. With a sound emission technique akin to the conch, instrumentalists can produce five to six notes, depending on their skill. This instrument is commonly used in military settings worldwide.
Clarinet
A variation of the European aerophone, typically featuring an ebony body with metal tuners. Distinguished by a single reed mouthpiece (in contrast to the oboe's double reed), this instrument of European origin is frequently employed in Indian orchestral performances and also serves in Indian classical music as either an accompaniment or soloist.
Damama
Resembling the terracotta Ṭikārā but with a larger circumference, the Damāmā was historically employed on battlefields. In contemporary times, it is almost exclusively featured in ceremonial settings.
Damaru
Damaru or Dugdugi is a folk instrument, also known as the instrument of Śiva, takes the shape of an hourglass with two faces covered by skins. With a rotary motion, these skins are struck by two pieces of wood connected by strings at the instrument's center, allowing for the expression of various rhythmic virtuosities. However, this instrument is closely associated with the traditions of snake charmers, magicians, and wandering monks.
Daf
A frame drum closely resembling Arab-Jewish versions, this instrument is linked to the nomadic tradition of India and continues to be integrated into contemporary orchestral settings. Considered one of the oldest instruments in human history, it finds mention in Dhrupada songs.
Dhaka
Among the oldest and most substantial instruments in the Hindustani tradition, the Dhaka is typically crafted from wood and covered with leather on both sides. Played on one side with sticks, it is often adorned with bird feathers. Always accompanied by another instrument called Kāṁsara, it is indispensable in numerous religious ceremonies and functions.
Dhola
Resembling the Ḍhāka, this instrument features skin on both sides, with one skin's central part covered by a mixture of rice flour and iron powder known as Gāba or Kharali, defining the timbre of all percussion instruments using this construction technique. Played with a stick held in the right hand and the free palm of the left hand, it is essential in various religious ceremonies and functions.
Dholak
Similar to the Ḍhola but smaller in size, the Ḍholaka has cotton tuning strings that zigzag along the entire side of the instrument, pulled through iron rings. Like the Ḍhola, it features a skin with Gāba. Played without sticks, using the palms of the hands, it is indispensable for accompanying theatrical performances in squares or outdoor venues.
Dilruba
A more expansive and intricate variant of the Esrāja, the Dilrubā boasts a lower register and is primarily employed for the Ālāpa. Played with a bow, it features a wooden body with a soundboard that holds the leather bridge.
Dotara
The name itself, meaning 'two strings,' aptly describes this instrument. There are various types of Dotara:
a. Ṭhanṭhanā: Consists of a bamboo handle affixed to a gourd. The soundboard, made of leather, supports a bridge over which two strings, tuned to the same frequency, pass. Depending on regional variations, these strings may be either placed side by side or superimposed. Common in the Tanjore and Madras areas.
b. Svarāja or Sursaṁgraha: Comparable to the Sarod but lacking a metal keyboard, it is better categorized in the Rabāb group. With a single wooden body, and in most cases, two strings, it is a folk instrument utilized in Bengal's villages, serving as both accompaniment for singing and as a solo instrument.
Dundubhi
Dundubhi is a membranophone and according to some interpretations, this instrument corresponds to the one mentioned in classical texts as Nakada.
Ektar
Comprising a bamboo handle fixed on a gourd, the Ektar has a leather soundboard supporting a bridge over which a string passes, stimulated by a plectrum called Mizrab. The name, once again, reflects the nature of this single-stringed instrument. Referred to in the Śāstras as Ekatantrī Vīṇā, it is considered the progenitor of all other Vīṇās in the Hindustani tradition. Primarily a rhythmic instrument, it serves as an accompaniment for religious hymns sung by the Bāula, Bairāgī, and wandering monks.
Esraj
This instrument is a fusion of the Sitār's neck and the soundbox of the Sārindā. Instead of a pumpkin, a hollow piece of wood is used, with a fixed skin acting as a soundboard. The bridge, where all the strings slide, is placed on this soundboard. All Sitār techniques, except for the Mīḍ, can be applied on the left hand. Primarily used as an accompaniment instrument, it is also featured in solo contexts, following the same principles as the Sitār.
Zufolo
A brass or wooden wind instrument of European origin, resembling the flutes in the Hindustani tradition. It features two mouthpieces on the back side, is held vertically, and has a relatively easy sound emission technique.
Flute
A wind instrument made of brass, silver, gold, or wood. It falls into three categories:
a. A straight reed open on both sides, played using the bottle technique. Its structure is akin to the Hindustani Veṇu.
b. Similar to a whistle.
c. With a sound emission technique resembling type 'a', this is the most commonly used type today, featuring some mechanical components. The smaller, high-register versions are called 'Piccolo,' and those made of gold produce the sweetest timbre.
Ghadi
A metal plate, often made of bronze, resembling a gong. Originally used to mark the passing of hours, the term Ghaḍī could be interpreted as a clock. Today, it serves in religious functions and educational institutions, signaling the beginning and end of various lessons.
Ghanta
Ghanta is encountered in various forms and is commonly seen in temples and homes, where it serves to announce the arrival of a guest seeking an audience.
Gopiyantra
A folk instrument primarily used by traveling monks, it features a single string fixed on a key inserted between two sections of bamboo. These sections culminate in a frame, at the end of which a skin is placed, and the other end of the rope is inserted. As a monochord, it is primarily employed for rhythmic rather than melodic functions. Bending the two bamboo sections alters the tension of the string, thereby changing the frequency of the produced sound.
Mohan Veena
The traditional Middle Eastern instrument, imported from the Moors to Spain, has evolved through modifications to its current form. Notably, the term contains the particle 'tar,' meaning rope. This plucked instrument allows for changes in note frequencies by pressing fingers on the keys. Another version, the Hawaiian guitar, utilizes a metal body and facilitates the slide technique, making techniques like Gamaka more accessible. In recent decades, the Hawaiian guitar has become widely popular for accompaniment and, in some cases, takes on a soloist role. The Vishwa Mohan Bhatt Vīṇā is an interesting case, named after the builder and musician who adapted the structure of Sitār strings to the Hawaiian guitar.
Harp
An instrument with origins in the musical cultures of ancient Mediterranean peoples, such as the Egyptians and Greeks. Consisting of three wooden parts arranged in a triangle, it forms the structure for a series of parallel strings. Played while sitting and held between the knees, the strings of various thicknesses are plucked with both hands. The Indian version is known as Kātyāyana Vīṇā or Kānana.
Jagajhampa
A variation of percussion crafted from fired clay.
Jalatarang
Comprising a series of ceramic vessels of varying sizes, baked and filled with water, played with sticks. The amount of water and the size of each vessel alter the sound frequency, resulting in a sweet and melodious timbre. Presently, witnessing a performance of this instrument is a rare occurrence.
Jhamjiha or Jhamjhara
Jhamjiha or Jhamjhara. There are two types, one large and one small. In the first case, it is a cymbal suspended with a central string and struck by a beater. In the second case, two cymbals, one for each hand, are played by striking them together.
Kada
Kada is a percussion instrument with a body made of fired clay or wood, reminiscent of the kettledrum in Euroculture tradition. The skin is tensioned through leather laces and struck with a knocker. This tool finds use in military settings.
Kamsara or Kamsi
Kamsara or Kamsi is a type of gong, resembling the shape of a frame drum but entirely crafted from bronze. Alongside the shell and bells, it is essential for religious functions. Struck with a beater, it offers a variety of rhythmic possibilities.
Kanana
The origins of this instrument remain somewhat ambiguous; some attribute it to the Mediterranean, while others claim Indian roots. For proponents of the latter view, Kanana could be the 'hundred-stringed' Kātyāyanī Vīṇā mentioned in classical texts. Classified as a zither, this instrument features a soundbox with approximately forty strings. These strings are affixed on one side to the instrument's body and on the other to pegs similar to those on a piano, passing over small bridges. The strings can be either struck with a stick or plucked with the fingers. It is also known as Svaramaṇdala.
Karatala
Karatala is a compact variation of the Jhamjiha, made from bronze or brass, frequently employed to accompany the Khol in Kirtana.
Khanjani or Khanjari, or also Mandira
Similar to the Ḍafa but with a much higher frame, it is held in the left hand and struck with the palm of the right hand. Traveling artists use it to make bears or monkeys dance.
Kharatala
Two iron rods struck together, often utilized to accompany Bhajanas with solo instrument parts. Some virtuosos hold a pair in each hand.
Madala or Muraja
A common name for Mardala, this instrument has a wooden body and two skins of equal diameter, stretched by leather straps. Widely popular among the Sāṁotāla, it is used for auspicious occasions in Bengali villages. Occasionally, Gāba is applied to the left side. In the Śāstras, it is referred to as Mardala or Mṛdaṅga.
Mandolin
An instrument of European origin that belongs to the guitar group. Typically featuring four pairs of strings, each pair tuned to the same pitch, a fretted neck, and played with a plectrum. The back part of the oval-shaped soundbox is often constructed with a series of wooden strips. Resembling the lute or Oud, it likely has Middle Eastern origins.
Manjira
A pair of bells played simultaneously to maintain rhythm. They frequently accompany the Dhola in auspicious functions.
Khol
One of the oldest instruments in the Hindustani tradition, where the name reflects the material used, with 'Mṛd' indicating earth and 'Aṅga' meaning body. The two ends have different diameters, and the central part of the body remains the widest. Leather strings cover the instrument, pulling the two skins together. Also known as Khol, it is often used to accompany certain types of dance. Although the name refers to the construction material, even those made of wood are sometimes called Mṛdaṅga.
Nakada
A hemispherical terracotta percussion instrument adorned with feathers and struck with one or two sticks. Despite its 'military' history, it is currently employed during ceremonial occasions. The larger version, known as Maha Nakada, differs in shape, taking on a more conical form. It is often accompanied by the Tikara.
Oboe
Oboe is a double-reed wind instrument of European origin, typically made of ebony with metal mechanics. It holds a significant place within orchestras.
Organ
This instrument is employed in churches for liturgical purposes and in more modern contexts such as Jazz. There are both reed organs like the Harmonium or the dulcettina, and pipe organs, where the length and thickness of the pipes determine the note's frequency. The keyboard is akin to the piano, though some models feature a pedal board and keys for opening or closing harmonics.
Pakhawaj
Pakhawaj. Featuring a wooden body with skins on both ends, each with a different diameter. The Gāba is applied only on the right side, and a paste of water and flour is applied before playing. Wooden cylinders under the leather straps facilitate tuning the skins. The name, originating from Persian, means 'from which a low sound comes out.' It accompanies Dhrupada, Tāraparaṇa, and dance.
Piano
Piano, A principal instrument in the western tradition but impractical for Indian classical music, but perfect for experimentation on Raga Harmonization. Check this video.
Piccolo
Picoolo is a smaller version of the recorder, capable of covering very high registers, often used in orchestral compositions.
Rabab
Rabab is an instrument of Arab origin, likely invented by Abdu 'l-lāl of the village of Basud in Saudi Arabia over a thousand years ago. The soundbox is crafted from a single hollow piece of wood covered by a skin, upon which the bridge supports the six gut strings. The material used for the strings limits sound expansion, resulting in Ālāpa that often sounds distinct. A technique used in Tāraparaṇa involves striking the skin with the right hand or the handle with the left, known as Capaka, which has also been introduced into the Sarod. Few musicians play this instrument today.
Ramasimga
Ramasimga is an ancient instrument, often crafted from bronze or copper, characterized by an elongated S shape. While it once had military applications, today it is employed for religious or ceremonial purposes. Its shape and timbre significantly differentiate it from other Indian aerophones. The sound emission technique is the same as that used for the conch.
Shehnai
Similar to the shawm, it is fashioned from a single piece of wood worked on a lathe, featuring a pipe with a double reed on one end and a bell-shaped opening on the other. Typically accompanied by a small Tikara and another Shehnai that produces the drone while holding the tonic. This trio, known as Rośan Caukī or Nahabat, previously limited to religious or ceremonial functions, now holds a dignified place in Indian classical music, primarily due to the genius of Bismillah Khan of Varanasi. It is noteworthy that even today, at the entrances to temples in very Orthodox cities, the Rośan Caukī performs every three hours.
Shankh
Shankh is a conch shell, iconic in Hindu religious and ceremonial functions, also used for coded signaling. The part from which the spiral originates is cut to create the support through which sound is produced, with the opening sometimes adorned with gold or silver, as suggested in classical texts.
Sarangi
Sarangi is an ancient and revered instrument, crafted from a single hollowed-out piece of wood, featuring a soundboard made of leather to support the bridge. Traditionally, the four main strings are made of gut, while the eleven resonance strings are made of bronze. Though initially a folk instrument, it has evolved into one of the primary instruments for concert production, serving both as an accompaniment and a solo instrument. Some versions of this instrument boast a total of fifty-six strings.
Sarinda
Sarinda is an instrument featuring a very large case akin to that of the Esraj but less favored. The strings can be made from gut or horsehair. This is an ancient instrument, and its origins are challenging to trace.
Sarod
Highly similar to the Rabāb but distinguished by the presence of resonance strings known as Tarafha and rhythmic strings called Cikārī, along with a broad, less favored, metal neck. Numerous modifications in the nineteenth century enabled the Sarod to express itself in Ālāpa, Tāraparaṇa, and Gat compositions. Many techniques used in the Sarod are derived from the Rabāb.
Saxophone
An instrument of European origin, crafted from brass, capable of producing a sweeter timbre compared to other brass instruments in the Euroculture tradition. Unlike most brass instruments, it utilizes a single reed, similar to the clarinet, with a distinct mouthpiece and sound emission technique.
Shinga
Originally fashioned from buffalo horn, but predominantly found in metal today, Shinga is primarily used for coded messages and is played using the same technique as the conch.
Sitar
The Persian-origin term Sitar translates to 'three strings.'
In the Śāstras, reference is made to the Tritantrī Vīṇā or Kachapī Vīṇā. The lituum gained popularity between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and later, Amīr Khusro coined the term Sitār. Over the centuries, while remaining a highly popular instrument, it has undergone various modifications and technological advancements, driven by the needs of musicians across different trends. The initial modification, adding two strings, was introduced by Masīd Khān, who also created the Masīdkhānī style—a standard for compositions with sustained tempo. The Rezākhānī style, associated with fast compositions, was another key contribution from him. The Gharānā itself introduced the Imdādḵẖānī style, a contemporary version of the Masīdkhānī. In 1930, rhythmic strings called Cikārī were incorporated, drawing inspiration from the Surabahār—an instrument akin to the Sitār but larger with a lower tone. With the addition of two more low strings in 1945, the Sitār overcame limitations in dealing with the Ālāpa, becoming a comprehensive instrument with the resonance strings called Tarafha. The neck is referred to as Dandī or Patarī, and the soundboard is known as Tablī. In 1925, a second gourd was added to the handle to amplify the sound for the performer.
Surbahar
According to tradition, this instrument was crafted by Gholām Mohammad Khān, a disciple of Piyār Khān and Omrāo Khān. Significantly larger than the Sitār, the Surabahār finds its application in both Dhrupada and Khayal, depending on the musician's proficiency. The distinctions between the Sitār and Surabahār include:
a. Dimensions
b. The Surabahar's capability to execute a seventh leap by pulling the string on a fret
c. Tone
d. Technique in Surabahār, which should resemble that of Vīṇā, involving the use of the index, middle, and little fingers of the right hand.
Suracain
Very akin to the Surabahār, the primary difference lies in the sounding board, which is crafted from a single hollowed piece of wood instead of a gourd. Additionally, the Suracain lacks Tarafh. A modified version of Sarod is also referred to as Suracain.
Surarabab
A modern Rabāb featuring a metal keyboard and strings. Similar to the Suraśṛṁgāra but with a leather soundboard.
Surshringar
Surshringar is an adaptation of the Rabāb, crafted under the supervision of Zafar Khān by an artisan from Benares. Unlike its predecessor, a gourd is employed for the soundbox instead of wood, the soundboard is crafted from wood rather than leather, and both the strings and fingerboard are made of metal. Rhythmic strings or Cikārī have also been incorporated. These alterations were implemented to extend the sound duration and enhance the melodious quality of the timbre. Regrettably, there are currently very few practitioners of this instrument across India.
Tabla
This percussion instrument holds the status of being the most prevalent throughout India. It accompanies various classical forms of Indian music, excluding Dhrupada and Ālāpa. Legend has it that the Pakhawaj was split in two, resulting in the archetype of what is now known as Tabla. The term specifically refers to the smaller piece with a wooden body, usually played with the right hand, while the other percussion is called Bāṁyā. Both skins are adorned with Gāba, tensioned by leather straps and wooden cylinders.
Tanpura
Tanpura holds a pivotal role in Indian classical music. By continuously stimulating the strings, tuned to the first on the fifth or fourth degree as needed, the second and third on the tonic, and the fourth on the tonic of the low register, it produces a drone—an ocean of harmonics within which the singer or musician harmonizes and finds any desired note. It belongs to the Ektārā family.
Taus
Derived from the Arabic term meaning 'peacock,' the Taus resembles the Esrāja but features a soundbox shaped like a peacock's head, with the legs and claws allowing the instrument to stand upright independently. It emerged around the mid-nineteenth century.
Tikara
Tikara is an instrument available in copper, wood, brass, or terracotta. It shares the same shape as the Kāḍā and is played by striking it with two sticks. It often serves as an accompaniment to the Shehnai.
Trombone
Trombone originating from Europe and crafted from brass, incorporates a telescopic component that enables sound modulation. The sound is produced using a technique akin to that of the conch. It forms an integral part of the wind section in orchestras.
Trumpet
Hailing from Europe and fashioned from brass, the trumpet is akin to the horn but presents a more challenging sound emission. It boasts a sweet and melodious timbre, with three pistons facilitating sound modulation, similar to the technique employed for the conch. A crucial instrument in orchestras, it often incorporates a mute on the final bell to control sound volume.
Tumdi
This wind instrument is partially made from a gourd and two bamboo reeds, each with a single reed. Tumdi is a folk instrument frequently utilized by snake charmers, it employs one bamboo cane for producing the drone and the other for the melody. The gourd, filling with air, aids in the circular breathing technique, ensuring a continuous sound even during the musician's inhalation.
Tysokodo
Imported from Japan, Tysokodo features keys resembling a typewriter that, when pressed, lock the string at a specific height, altering its frequency. While it briefly gained popularity in classical contexts, it is now predominantly used in folk settings. In the realm of Indian music, it is often referred to as Bulbul-Taraṅga.
Veena
Veena is a term encompassing all chordophones, which include various types featuring both gut and metal strings:
1. Ālāpinī
2. Bharata
3. Brahma
4. Citra
5. Dakshiṇī
6. Ekatantrī
7. Ghoṣavatī
8. Hantikā
9. Jayā
10. Jyeṣṭhā
11. Kachapī
12. Kinnarī-(a)Bṛhatī, (b)Madhyamā, (c ) Lāghavī
13. Kubjikā
14. Kūrmikā
15. Mahatī (present in northern India)
16. Mattakokilā (Ekaviṁśatitantrī with twenty-two strings)
17. Nādesvara
18. Nakula (Dvitantrī with two strings)
19. Nakuloṣṭhi
20. Nāradīya
21. Nihśaṅka
22. Parivādinī
23. Piṇākī (Dhanuyantra or bowed)
24. Pona
25. Prasāriṇī
26. Rañjanī (which has a wooden soundboard that supports the bridge and a fingered neck as in the Sitār)
27. Rāvaṇahantaka
28. Rudra (Rabab)
29. Śāradīya (Sarod)
30. Sāraṅga (Sāraṅgī)
31. Śatatantrī (probably Kānana)
32. Ṣaṭkarṇa
33. Śruti (Dvāviṁśatitantrī with twenty-two strings)
34. Sura (Suraśṛṁgāra)
35. Svara
36. Trisvarī
37. Tritantrī
38. Tumburū (Tamburā)
39. Udumbarī
40. Vallakī
41. Vicitra
42. Vipañcī (Navatantrī with nine strings)
The Veena used in northern India today differs significantly from other lutes. It features two large gourds attached to the neck, supporting both the keys and the bridge. There is no soundboard, and the two sounding boxes are not integrated into the handle. Additionally, the strings are arranged in decreasing thickness from the ground, contrary to other lutes.
The keys are immobile and fixed with wax, ensuring the presence of all semitones in the scale. Notably, there are three bridges: one for the main strings, one for the rhythm strings, and another for a free string serving as a drone, stimulated with the thumb when needed. The index finger and middle finger, equipped with a Mizrāb, are used, occasionally with the ring finger. The little finger is employed for the Cikārī.
Xylophone
Xylophone . Comprising bars of wood, metal, or glass of varying sizes placed parallel to each other, cut to produce different semitones. These bars are struck with two or four beaters and find use in orchestras. A modern variant with sound amplification and a unique vibratory timbre is known as a vibraphone.
Vajan or Vazan
'Weight'. This term assumes a distinctive meaning in the realm of music, embodying the semantic essence of 'measurement.'
This concept represents a contemporary understanding. In Hindustani theory, notes are linked to the Tonic, or first degree of the scale, where the mobile or relative nature of the Sadja (tonic) and the derivation of other notes in relation to it are fundamental.
In the Western system, every musical sound is quantified using the frequency, expressed as vibrations per second.
In the pursuit of establishing a stable tonic as a reference, various standards have been devised.
Assuming Sa corresponds to 240 Hz, we derive the following frequencies:
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Sa – 240 Hz
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Re – 270 Hz
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Ga – 300 Hz
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Ma – 320 Hz
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Pa – 360 Hz
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Dha – 400 Hz
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Ni – 450 Hz
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Ṡa – 480 Hz
Vakra
The antithesis of Ṥuddha, indicating the inherent progression of notes.
A Kūṭa Tāna earns the designation "Vakra" precisely because, instead of adhering to a conventional sequence like:
S G M P
it adopts an arrangement such as:
SMGP,
where the customary order of notes is deliberately disrupted.
Rāgas characterized by a deliberate deviation from the natural progression of notes in the reference scale are termed Vakra Rāga.
While Ṥuddha Rāga may occasionally incorporate Vakra Taan, such instances typically occur in introductory and obligatory phrases, preserving the natural flow of the scale. In a Vakra Rāga, however, employing phrases that honor the natural succession of notes from the reference scale would fail to convey the emotional essence characteristic of that particular Rāga.
Vani
This term denotes distinct styles, exemplified by the four styles of Dhrupad:
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Dagar Vani
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Gauri Vani
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Khandar Vani
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Nauhar Vani
While the term Gharana can carry a similar connotation, a more accurate translation is "family" rather than style.
Occasionally, the term is transliterated as Bāṅī or Vāṅī.
Varna
These alphabetical characters, employed in the musical context, represent the notes of the scale. Much like the sequential arrangement of letters forming a structured code for effective communication, in music, notes adhere to specific rules delineating the Rāga and its inherent emotional attributes.
Varnalankara
A type of Alaṁkāra consisting of brief phrases, for instance:
S G R
constitutes a sequence known as Sañcārī Varṇa.
On the other hand, when referring to Sañcārī Varṇālaṁkāra, a sequence such as:
SGR, RMG, GMP, MDP, PND
Vegasvara or Besara Giti
Vegasvara o Besara Giti is a stylistic feature distinguished by the utilization of rapidity in melodic presentation.
Vidhara
The term Vidhara likely originates from the verb Vidara meaning 'to divide,' 'disintegrate,' or 'destroy.'
In the musical context, the term refers to the action of 'disrupting the natural sequence.'
Within a Vistāra, the unexpected or unconventional utilization of a sequence of notes or a combination of notes, following the rules of the Rāga, is termed the Viḍhāra style.
It is noteworthy that at times, a Rāga may be intentionally presented in a way that renders it unrecognizable to the audience for a certain duration, showcasing the virtuosity of the musician.
In the Madh portion of the Ālāpa, the Viḍhāra style may be employed, and both Saragam and Gat can be composed in this manner.
Vikrta Swara
Altered note.
Sa and Pa remain unchanged, while Re, Ga, Dha, and Ni can be flattened, regarded as Komal, and Ma can be sharpened, referred to as Tīvra.
In essence, whenever a note undergoes any alteration, it is termed Vikrta Swara.
In the traditional texts (Śāstra), the Ga, considered natural, aligns with the present-day Komala Ga in its altered form. This shift transpired due to the inclination of modern musicologists towards Westernization.
Vilambit Laya
Moderate or prolonged pace.
In Indian music, three primary tempos exist:
1. Vilambit
2. Madhya
3. Drut
These terms are relative, representing half of an intermediate time or madhya laya.
In Khayal singing, the Vilambit tempo can be exceptionally slow.
Viloma
Descending.
It is the reflected pattern of the natural upward movement of a scale, also known as Avaroha.
Vinyasa
The Vinyasa Swara is the note that concludes the section of a phrasing or Pada.
Visama
The silent accent in a Taal, also known as Kali, typically positioned opposite the first and most emphasized beat of a rhythmic cycle called Sama.
Vistara
In literal terms, this term shares the same meaning as Tāna, but in practice, they are quite distinct from each other. The presentation of a Rāga through an arrhythmic composition, be it fast or slow, long or short, can be referred to as Vistāra, whereas a Tāna involves rhythmic embellishments using various Alaṁkāra. Prastāra is also a type of Vistāra, but while the latter has an extemporaneous nature, the former is bound by specific rules.
Vivadi
According to the Śāstras, two notes with a distance of one or two Ṥrutī or microtones between them are considered Vivādī or dissonant to each other. For instance, in the major diatonic scale, G and M are considered Vivādī or dissonant. The following is a list of Vivādī:
Vivādī Vādī Vivādī
Ņ S r
S r R
r R g
R g G
g G M
G M m
M m P
m P d
P d D
d D n
D n N
n N Ś
In some Rāgas, the use of Vivādī can create a pleasant and interesting effect. For example, in the Rāga Bihāga, Ga is the Aṁśa Svara, and Ma is its Vivādī, but the phrasing G M G is essential.
It is crucial not to emphasize Ma excessively, and using Ma as Bidārī would compromise the essence of Rāga Bihāga.
Nevertheless, it is worth noting that some musicians intentionally deviate from this pattern for experimental purposes. However, the fundamental implication of Rāga rules is to avoid eliminating a Vivādī from the scale; instead, it should be used judiciously. In the Rāga Bihāga, for instance, Ma should be employed to oscillate between Ga and Pa.
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The main instruments of Indian Classical Music
The Sitar is the icon of Indian Classical music. The structure and tonal quality of this instrument is the result of several years of hard work and dedication of both the musicians and the master luthiers.
Goṭu Vādyama is a modified and developed form of Ektantri Veena, appeared on the scene of the Carnatic music system about hundred fifty years ago, it can be considered the Vichitra Veena of South India.
The name Rudra Vina, often written Rudra Veena, first appears in Nārada's Saṃgīta Makaranda between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and is supposed to be a derivation of the Kinnarī Vīṇā.
The Taus, the Dilruba and the Esraj are North Indian bowed instruments, all three with hybrid characteristics of the Sitar, such as long necks, fingerboard and metal strings, and of the Sāraṅgī such as the crafted soundboard Leather.
The Saraswati Veena, is very different from the Vīṇā of northern India. In fact, the arrangement of the main strings and cikari, the posture and the sound production techniques remain the same.
The Vichitra Vina, often written Vichitra Veena, saw its splendor towards the beginning of the twentieth century but many indications lead us to think that it is a developed and modified version of a very ancient instrument.
The Surabahar, often written Surbahar, was created, according to tradition, by Gholām Mohammad Khān, disciple of Piyār Khān and Omrāo Khān. Much larger than the Sitār, it is used, both in the Dhrupad and in the Khayal.
The Tampura is a fundamental instrument of Indian classical music, present in both the northern and southern systems. The function of this chordophone is to provide a sound in the background, that acts as a drone for improvisation.
In Arabic the term rebab indicates a bowed instrument; in fact the two half-moon inlets that characterize the shape of the Rabab's sound box suggest that it was only later converted into a direct pluck instrument.
The Svaramandala is a chordophone used by singers for accompaniment. Kallinatha in his commentary on Śārṅgadeva's Saṅgīta Ratnākara coincides the matakokilavīṇā of Bharata Muni's time with the Svaramaṇḍala,
The Sanṭoor is a dulcimer that has only recently entered Indian classical music scene. It is considered one of the most important developments of the twentieth century in Indian Classical music.
The transverse flute used in Indian classical music, is capable of reproducing all the delicate movements, ornamentations and nuances of the human voice. This instrument finds references in many sacred texts.
Among the main contributions of Indian instrumental technology, both in terms of production quantity and timbre quality, bifacial convex diaphragms occupy a place of primary importance in Indian Classical Music.
In the folk and tribal music of different regions of India, various types of stringed instruments are found with a very varied tradition. In the Rajasthani tradition there are more than ten types of Sāraṅgī.
This name derives from two sanskrit terms "pakshe vadya", or from the Persian "pakh awaz" which means soft sounding. The pakahwaj became the main percussion in the north, while the mridangam assumed centrality in the south.
The term Sarod, of Persian origin, means "song" or "melody". All hypotheses regarding the origin of the Sarod, are based on many assumptions and inferences. The general opinion is that it is a developed version of the Rabab,
One of the oldest and most widespread percussion instruments are the timpani, with a conical-shaped body, the skin of which is often struck with beaters modeled in an arched shape or simply straight, with a knobbed head.
The terms Shahana, Shahanay or Shennay identify the zurna, a wooden aerophone typical of Persian musical culture. In Iran we can still find various styles of this instrument which vary both in size and in the quality of wood used.
Tabla are the percussion instruments that best represent Indian musical culture. This instrument, used mainly in the Hindustani style, accompanies singing, instrumental music and dance.
The khol is the most used percussion in the north-eastern region of India, often linked to the Vaishnava cult of Bengal and Assam, it is also often called mridang since the body is made of terracotta (mrit means clay).
Probably in the past the pakhavaj and the mridangam presented much fewer differences and are in fact to be associated with a single archetype, but they developed over the centuries within two different styles,
Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape with the two ends joined on which a membrane is applied.
The sound production techniques and the structure are identical to the shennay, the differences are mostly related to the dimensions and some small details. The double reed is fixed on a metal support which fits onto the wooden body.
The violin, which in India is also called Behalā, as we know, is one of the first Western instruments to have been introduced, more than a century and a half ago, into Indian music by Baluswamy Dikshitar (1786-1858), a great music scholar caranatica.
The Suraśṛṁgāra, often written Sursingar in many respects similar to the Surabahar, is a reinterpretation of the Rabab created in Benares under the supervision of Zafar Khān.
The moorchang, is a typical example of a universal instrument. In Italy it is a popular instrument called the wind chime or marranzano and although it takes on different forms, it is used all over the world.
The tavil belongs to the folk music tradition of South India, and is often played with a wind ensemble called periya melam. This percussion has a barrel shape with a single-layered stem, obtained from a single cylindrical block of wood.
Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape.
The term bhanda vadya is used to indicate all terracotta percussion instruments with a spherical body, practically real vases of various shapes and sizes.
The term "Mohan veena" can denote one of two distinct plucked string instruments utilized in Indian classical music, particularly in Hindustani classical music, which is traditionally associated with the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent.