Sabdalankar
Sabdalankara are a variety of Alankar.
Among these we find:
- Capaka
- Gamaka
- Scattered
- Jhara
- Jhala
- Jhatka
- Krintan
Sacala Svara
Within Indian Music, five musical notes are subject to alteration. With the exception of Sa and Pa, the other notes, owing to their variable nature, are referred to as Sacala Svara.
Specifically, Re, Ga, Dha, and Ni can manifest in their flat form, identified as komal.
Ma is the sole swara that can undergo alteration into a sharp form, designated as Tivra, resembling the sharp alteration found in Western music.
Sa and Pa are categorized as Acala Svara.
Sacala Thaat
In this context, the term Ṭhāṭa refers to a key on any fretted chordophone where to achieve the alteration of a tone or a microtone in the scale, it becomes necessary to physically shift the position of the reference key. Instruments with movable keys are termed Sacala Ṭhāṭa. On the other hand, if the keys are non movable, we would use the term Acala Thata. For example Sitar and Surbahar are considered Sacala Thaat, Rudra Veena and Saraswati Veena are considered Acala Thaat.
Sadara
A Dhrupada composition created in Jhāṁpatāla is referred to as Sādāra. This designation likely originates from the name of the hometown of two brothers, Ṥiviamohana and Ṥivanātha, both disciples of Baijū Bāvrā. These singers and composers were known for producing diverse Dhrupada songs in Jhāṁpatāla, and they distinguished their style as Sādāra in homage to their village. This form of composition represents a fusion of Dhrupada and Jhāṁpatāla.
Sadava
When a single note is excluded from a seven-note scale, it transforms into a hexatonic scale, known as Ṣāḍava or Ṣāḍavita Krama. The tonic, SA, is the only indispensable note that cannot be omitted. Rāgas employing a hexatonic scale are categorized as Sadava Raga.
Sadharana Gandhara
As per the Saṁgītaratnākara, when the Śāstrīya Ga, which is the komal or flat Ga, gains one Ṥrutī from Ma and reaches three Ṥrutī, it is referred to as Sādhāraṇa Gāndhāra.
Sadharani Giti
In the realm of Indian music, especially within the context of Dhrupad, Sadharani Giti is characterized as a style that blends the distinctive features of all other Gīti.
Sadja
In Indian music, the term Sadja, often abbreviated as Sa or S, signifies the tonic or the first swara (refer to Kharaja) of the musical scale. According to tradition, all other notes originate from and return to this first degree, with Sadja symbolizing the Principle of all things.
The presence of the tonic is essential for the existence of any Raga, and, along with the Pancama or fifth degree, it constitutes the Acala Svara group.
Sadja Grama
The Śāstras refer to three scales or Grāma:
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Ṣaḍja Grāma
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Madhyama Gramma
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Gāndhāra Grāma
Ṣaḍja Grāma and Madhyama Grāma were historically employed in entertainment music, while Gāndhāra Grāma was reserved for forms of an esoteric and confidential nature. The distinction among the various Grāma is associated with the number of microtonal intervals between the notes.
In Ṣaḍja Grāma:
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Sa, Ma, and Pa have four microtones
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Re and Dha each have three microtones
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Ga and Ni each have two microtones
Sakari
The literal interpretation would be "following note" or "succeeding microtone." In Indian classical music, when a note is modified, assuming the position in the last Ṥrutī or microtone of the preceding note, it is referred to as Sākārī Svara in relation to the preceding one.
Salami Tukda
Opening Ṭukḍā.
To commence a solo percussion performance, such as on the Tabla, it is customary to present an initial Ṭukḍā accompanied by a Tihāī. The structure of the Tihāī allows for intervals in which the performer can acknowledge the audience, a gesture of respect repeated three times. Following this, the concert can proceed smoothly.
Salanka Sreni
An alternate term for a Raga in its Chāyālaga or Sālaga Ṥreṇī manifestation. This classification encompasses Ragas that incorporate overtones from another Raga.
Sam
Sam, derived from the word "together," holds significant importance in Nibbhada, a key aesthetic element in Indian classical music.
Sam refers to the highly emphasized beat within a rhythmic cycle, where the singer or instrumentalist harmoniously aligns with the accompanist, producing a rhythmic effect of synchronized emphasis on a specific point.
Sama Veda
The Sama Veda is the portion of the Vedas containing chanted mantras, particularly those of the Vedic hymns known as Sāma. It has a long history, dating back at least four or five thousand years. Different opinions exist on the number of notes used in Sama Veda, ranging from four to all seven notes of the scale. According to Sangitaratnakara of Sarnagadeva, only three notes were used:
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Udātta (high tone)
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Anudātta (low tone)
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Svarita (intermediate tone)
Sama Veda Samhita, linked to music through Yajna (any ritual done in front of a sacred fire), represents the earliest organized form of music. It comprises Mantras selected from Rig Veda, arranged for chanting during Yajnas. The text has two segments:
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Sama-Yoni mantra Samhita (basic text)
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Sama-gana text (melody text).
Sama-gana involves rearranging selected mantras into Saman, with modifications such as turning, twisting, elongating syllables, and adding modulations. The musical effect is enhanced by inserting Svaras and Stobha (meaningless sounds). Different Samaga-charyas or ways of singing Sama existed, with surviving shakhas like Kauthumiya, Ranayaniya, and Jaiminiya.
Gana, the musical aspect, involves four styles of singing hymns:
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Grama-geya-gana
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Aranya-gana
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Uha-gana
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Uhya-gana
Grama-geya-gana relates to singing in villages, while Aranya-gana is sung in forests with contemplative qualities. Uha-gana and Uhya-gana are associated with Soma Yajna rituals.
Shiksha, a branch of Veda lore, outlines elements of chanting: Varna (syllable), Svara (accent), Maatra (duration), Balam (stress), Sama (even tone), and Santana (continuity).
The development of Sama music played a crucial role in shaping Indian classical music. Sama-gana, evolving from Yajna, gave rise to devotional songs known as Marga or Gandharva Sangeet. Over time, classical music expanded, transitioning from structured Prabandhas to improvised forms.
While the spiritual significance of music wasn't initially emphasized, later texts associated musical elements with specific Yajnas, suggesting benefits from singing particular taanas. Eventually, music gained recognition as the fifth Veda, and its practice is considered a spiritual path leading to liberation.
Samaya
Each Rāga is associated with a specific time of day or night, although some, like Bhairavī, Pīlū, and Kāfī, can be performed at any time. There are also daytime Rāgas, such as Sūhā and Sughrāī Kānhaḍā, which are utilized during the night as well. Gauḍasāraṅga, belonging to the Sāraṅga group, is typically performed during the day; however, it lacks the Sāraṅga element. Additionally, there's a unique aspect called Din-kā-Bihāga, which represents Rāga Bihāg for the day, firmly established within the tradition. An exception is also made for seasonal Rāgas, allowing them to be presented at any time of the day during their specific season.
Samgat
Musical Encounter.
The supportive role played by percussion is termed Saṁgat and it is considered secondary. In cases where percussion takes precedence as the primary instrument in the concert, the melody it is referred to as Laharā, and the instrument providing a fixed melody in accompaniment is known as Saṁgat.
Saṁgīta, Sangeet, Sangita.
When singing, instrumental music, and dance coexist, the performance is referred to as Saṁgīta. In contemporary usage, this term encompasses both singing and instrumental music accompanied by percussion, while dance is regarded as one of the five primary arts.
It can also be transliterated as Sangeet or Sangita.
Samika
A Tāna, named for its utilization of only three notes from the Sāma Veda, is comprised of a minimal set of musical elements.
For instance, in Raga Yaman played on a Tintal in Madhya Laya, employing just three notes, a variation with a Tihay can be illustrated as follows:
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Samkirna Sreni
A Rāga is designated as such when it is created by blending a Chāyālaga Rāga with a Ṥuddha Rāga .
Sampurna
When a Rāga incorporates all seven notes of a scale, it is referred to as a Sampūrṇa Rāga. This description is also applied to Mūrcchanā, Krama, and Tāna forms that utilize all seven notes. The term "Sampūrṇa" itself translates to 'complete.' In cases where six notes are used, it is termed Sadava, and if five notes are employed, it is known as Audava.
Samvadi
Saṁvādī is the note positioned at the ninth and thirteenth microtone from the Vādī. Alternatively, it can be seen as representing the relationship of fourths and fifths in Western music theory. It is classified as a consonant note.
Sancari Tuk
One segment of the Alap within Dhrupad, confined to the intermediate register's Gāndhāra and the lowest tone of the low register known as Kharaj.
Sandhi Prakash
Rāgas performed during sunrise or sunset are termed Sandhi Prakāśa Rāga. Typically, the scale in such Rāgas includes the flat or Komala notes of D and Dha, along with Shuddha Ga and Ni, and Tivra Madhyam. In this context, "Sandhi" denotes the juncture between day and night, while "Prakāśa" signifies 'manifestation.'
Sanyasa
The note that, not being Vivādī or Apanyāsa Svara, can serve as a concluding note and be referred to as Sanyāsa Svara.
Sapat Taan
A variety of Taan that typically employs natural movements, whether ascending or descending, of the reference scale.
An example in Raga Bihag:
P̣ Ṇ S G M P N Ṡ | N D P M G R S Ṇ | S
Saptak
The seven-note scale is referred to as Saptaka.
This concept can be likened to the Western octave concept, with the only distinction being that, in the Indian system, the last note belonging to the next register is excluded.
Typically, three registers are employed: Mandra or low, Madhya or intermediate, and Tāra or high. However, in the exposition of the Alap, a lower register than Mandra, known as Ati Mandra, is also explored. Sometimes, the term Saptak is substituted with Grāma along with various adjectives, where Udārā indicates the low register, Mudārā the intermediate register, and Tārā the high register.
Sargam
The composition devoid of literary text, also known as Vāṅī in a Tarānā, is referred to as Sargam.
This term is derived from the contraction of Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, representing the lower tetrachord of the scale. Sargam is typically performed vocally but is occasionally employed as an instrumental accompaniment for percussion, such as in Laharā Gat.
Sargams are widely popular in Northern India and are sometimes incorporated into Khayal or a Ṭhumrī. Nevertheless, it remains an integral and fundamental component of Trivaṭa, Tarānā, and Caturaṅga.
The utilization of Sargam within improvisation was initially distinctive to the Carnatic style until Ustad Abdul Karim Khan introduced it into his repertoire, subsequently spreading its influence across many northern Gharanas.
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Sarana
This term signifies 'to move'.
The Sangitaratnakara outlines a clever method for illustrating the existence of Ṡrutīs, the intervals between them, the number of Ṡrutis each note contains, and the total number of Ṡrutis within an octave.
Using two chordophones or Vīṇās, each equipped with twenty-two strings tuned to the corresponding twenty-two Ṡrutīs, it is necessary to establish the correlation between the strings and the notes of the Kafi Thaat or minor scale on both instruments.
For instance:
- On the two strings No. 4, there are two 'Sa' (do),
- On the strings No. 7, there are two 'Kings',
- On the strings No. 9, there are two 'ga' (E flat),
- On strings No. 13, there are two 'Ma' (fa),
- On strings No. 17, there are two 'Pa' (sol),
- On strings No. 20, there are two 'Dha' (la),
- On strings No. 22, there are two 'ni' (B flat).
After tuning the two instruments and indicating the reference notes, one of the Vīṇās must remain the 'unalterable' instrument, named Dhruva Vīṇā, while the other becomes the 'alterable' one, called Cala Vīṇā.
Subsequently, in the 'alterable' instrument, each string must be systematically lowered to align the intonation of each string with that of the corresponding string on the 'unalterable' instrument. This process is repeated to achieve precise alignment.
During this procedure, notes that initially had only two Ṡrutīs, such as 'Ga komal' (E flat) and 'Ni komal' (B flat), will correspond to the notes preceding them, such as 'Re' and 'Dha'.
By repeating the lowering action on the Cala Vīṇā strings, 'Re' and 'Dha,' each with three Ṡrutīs, will correspond to 'Sa' and 'Pa' on the 'unalterable' instrument.
Further lowering of the Cala Vīṇā strings will result in 'Sa,' 'Ma,' and 'Pa,' each with four Ṡrutīs, corresponding respectively to the 'Ni Komal' in the low register (not present in the Dhruva Vīṇā), 'Ga Komal,' and 'Ma' of the 'unalterable' instrument.
It is important to emphasize that the twenty-two strings represent the 22 microtones or frequency units, classified into three types of notes based on the number of Ṡrutīs: those with two Ṡrutīs ('Ga Komal' and 'Ni Komal'), those with three Ṡrutīs ('Re' and 'Dha'), and those with four Ṡrutīs each ('Sa,' 'Ma,' and 'Pa').
In summary, the demonstration illustrates that microtonal intervals manifest as identical frequency units. The precision in the observed correspondences reinforces the notion that these intervals share identical frequency units.
Sarika or Parda
The terms Sārikā and Parda designate the keys on chordophones equipped with a keyboard.
The unique feature of Indian chordophones, such as the Sitar and Rudra Vina, lies in their keys, allowing for string bending and enabling the production of multiple notes on a single key. Notably, the Surbahar stands out as a chordophone where this skillful technique results in an extensive frequency spectrum, encompassing up to seven tones for each key.
Master luthiers manually bend the frets, and variations may exist between manufacturers. When acquiring these instruments, it is crucial to assess factors such as the curvature and the relative clarity of sound produced on each key.
Saath Samgat
When the percussionist, accompanying a vocalist or instrumentalist, plays a Relā or a Kāyadā concurrently with the latter's Tāna, Bāṁta, or Vistāra, this style of accompaniment is referred to as Sāth Saṁgat.
One of the Maestros in this art of improvisation is defintely Ustad Zakir Hussain.
Savari
The bridge of a chordophone, literally translated as 'over which the string pass.' The term Javari specifically denotes the surface on which the strings rest.
Seniya Gharana
The lineage of Tansen, particularly the school that flourished in the court of Jaipur through the descendants of Surat Sen and Masid Khan, is noteworthy. The sitar is the principal instrument of this Gharana, and much of the technical and physical evolution of this instrument is attributed to them.
One of the greatest masters of this Gharana was Ustad Barkat Ullah Khan of Jaipur, who not only popularized the instrument but also had no equal.
A distinctive feature of the sitar in this Gharana is the number of frets: 17 instead of 19.
Silsila
This term means 'sequence.'
Any composition, whether musical or literary, is based on a well-formulated sequence without which no analysis, classification, or decoding of the rules would be possible.
In fact, Ālāpa, Dhrupada, Khayal, Ṭhumrī, Ṭappā, or instrumental Gat, all follow a well-formulated sequence.
According to tradition, the Silsilā is passed down from master to disciple through generations.
Musicians who are not familiar with the proper sequence but have acquired certain inadequate skills for correct presentation by copying from other musicians are called Ātāi.
Sparsa
This term means 'touch.' It is, in fact, a specific technique for fretted string instruments. While the index finger of the left hand remains on the fret, the string is stimulated by a strike with the right hand. Before the produced sound fades, the middle finger of the left hand quickly strikes and releases the string on the next fret. It is a variety of Ṥabdālaṁkāra, which remains very similar to Kṛntana.
Sruti: Microtones in Indian music
Any audible sound or any sound-producing object can be defined as a Ṥrutī.
In the context of Indian classical music, the term Ṥrutī defines a unit of measurement for the frequency of a note. This concept does not derive from any scientific measurement but from the perception of sages who lived in the past. In particular, the experiment described by Bharat in the Natya Sastra demonstrates the presence of 22 microtones that divide an octave.
Although auditory perception varies from individual to individual, there are infinite frequencies within an octave. However, only twenty-two are identified.
An explanation is provided in the Saṁgītaratnākara through the theories of Indian philosophy on the subtle body, which identifies two energy channels, Iḍā and Piṅgalā, that rise, twisting around the spine, and create twenty-two secondary channels allowing us to perceive these microtones. From a Western perspective, this may appear as philosophical speculation, but it is the system on which the music of Raga is still based today—a topic useful for musicological discussion.
The Ṥrutīs in the Śāstra are classified into five different classes or Jāti.
The number of vibrations for each microtone can be measured, but since the reference tonic is movable, these are not absolute values but relative. Therefore, considering the sum of the frequencies of an entire octave and dividing it by twenty-two yields the value of a relative Ṥrutī. However, this is considered an unnecessary operation, as according to a part of Indian musicology, the Ṥrutī as a unit does not exist. There are theories admitting inequality between various microtones.
Here is a detailed description of the Ṥrutīs:
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Shuddha Swara
In Indian music, any note of the scale, except Sa and Pa, can undergo alterations, but when these notes of the Indian musical scales occupy their 'natural' position, they are called Ṥuddha Svara.
Traditionally, until the arbitrary intervention of Pt. V.N. Bhatkhande ji, Ga and Ni were considered natural in their flat form and recognized as Ṥuddha Svara, whereas today they are defined as Vikṛta Svara.
Suluf
When the Laya acquires a value four times higher than the intermediate tempo called Madhya Laya, it is defined as Ṥuluph Laya. This term is specific to percussion, so in a rhythmic cycle of sixteen beats, we will have sixty-four Bols, four for each beat.
Suraparana
The various methods used to play rhythmically on an instrument with Paraṇas composed of notes and Bols are called Suraparaṇa. Unlike Tāraparaṇa, where the rhythm of the Bols, related to percussion, is played on a string instrument, Suraparaṇa features a free rhythm of Bols.
Swara
There are various types of sounds in the world, but not all sounds are Swara or notes. According to the Saṁgītaratnākara, "the sound that has a vibrating quality (Anuraṇanātmaka) of a pleasant nature (Snigdha) and that has preceding Ṥrutīs, which gives pleasure to the mind of the listener independently of any other factor, is called Swara."
The statement "that has preceding Ṥrutīs" emphasizes that there are other sounds separated by microtones, and a sound that refers to the presence of Ṥrutīs can only belong to a musical scale.
So, if there are other sounds separated by microtones between a musical sound and one that is double in frequency, gradually increasing in frequency following a specific law, then the sound can be called a note or Swara. All these notes or Swara together form a so-called scale.
Notes in the Indian system do not have a fixed connotation, and any sound can be considered the tonic. Therefore, a sound outside the scale in Indian classical music cannot be considered a note, where the relationship with the tonic is crucial to defining it as Swara, which, taken otherwise alone, is just a 'pleasant sound.'
Anuraṇanātmaka means 'with permanent vibrations'; a dull sound cannot be defined as Anuraṇanātmaka.
The gradual increase in the frequency of sounds within the scale can be measured in two ways:
1. through the units of Ṥrutīs
2. through frequency measurement
The notes are usually indicated either by the letter or the initial syllable.
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| Sa स | Ṣaḍjā (षड्जं)
| Re र | Ṛṣabha (ऋषभ)
| Ga ग | Gāndhāra (गान्धारं)
| Ma म | Madhyama (मध्यमं)
| Pa प | Pañcama (पंचमं)
| Dha ध | Dhaivata (धैवतं)
| Ni नि | Niṣāda (निषादं)
S and P are the only ones that cannot be altered.
Svara Jnana
According to Paṇditjī Viṣṇunārāyaṇa Bhātakhaṇḍe, understanding the notes can be confirmed through two simple methods:
1. Produce any Svara upon request.
2. Recognize any Svara.
By successfully completing these two tests, one can demonstrate possessing Svara Jñāna, which could be defined as 'perfect pitch' or actually 'relative pitch'.
Svaralipi
The introduction of notation systems in Indian music occurred towards the close of the nineteenth century, driven by a desire for "Westernization" and the democratization of music to make it more accessible to the general public.
Three methods were implemented:
1. Daṇḍa Mātrika: In this system, beats are represented by vertical lines, indicating the moment when the stroke or note should be executed. Kṣetramohana Gosvāmī introduced this system.
2. Ākāra Mātrika: This method involves representing notes, indicated with the initial syllable, separated by an Ākāra '|'. Dvijendranāth Ṭhākura introduced this system.
3. Bhātakhaṇḍe system: In this system, beats are not explicitly shown, but notations are separated by vertical lines that reflect the subdivision of the rhythmic cycle.
Svarita
The tonal classification in Sanskrit grammar, employed for the recitation of the Vedas, identifies three "qualities" of tone:
- Udatta, denoting a high pitch
- Anudatta, representing a low tone
- Svarita, indicating an accented tone
The accented tone, known as Svarita, typically follows the Udatta and serves as the intermediate tone between high and low.
Svasa
The term Ṥvāsa refers to the duration of the vibration of a note in an instrument.
A longer duration is indicative of better instrument quality, often correlated with the quality and age of the wood utilized.
Explore the section dedicated to musical instruments of India for more information.
Svayambhu Svara
This term denotes the expression of harmonics in a chordophone.
Typically, these tones are emphasized in instruments like the Tampura, where the fifth and occasionally the third resonate distinctly and concurrently. However, they are frequently heightened in the Sitar, the Vina, the Sarod, and in all stringed instruments featuring resonance strings or Taraf.
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The main instruments of Indian Classical Music
The Sitar is the icon of Indian Classical music. The structure and tonal quality of this instrument is the result of several years of hard work and dedication of both the musicians and the master luthiers.
Goṭu Vādyama is a modified and developed form of Ektantri Veena, appeared on the scene of the Carnatic music system about hundred fifty years ago, it can be considered the Vichitra Veena of South India.
The name Rudra Vina, often written Rudra Veena, first appears in Nārada's Saṃgīta Makaranda between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and is supposed to be a derivation of the Kinnarī Vīṇā.
The Taus, the Dilruba and the Esraj are North Indian bowed instruments, all three with hybrid characteristics of the Sitar, such as long necks, fingerboard and metal strings, and of the Sāraṅgī such as the crafted soundboard Leather.
The Saraswati Veena, is very different from the Vīṇā of northern India. In fact, the arrangement of the main strings and cikari, the posture and the sound production techniques remain the same.
The Vichitra Vina, often written Vichitra Veena, saw its splendor towards the beginning of the twentieth century but many indications lead us to think that it is a developed and modified version of a very ancient instrument.
The Surabahar, often written Surbahar, was created, according to tradition, by Gholām Mohammad Khān, disciple of Piyār Khān and Omrāo Khān. Much larger than the Sitār, it is used, both in the Dhrupad and in the Khayal.
The Tampura is a fundamental instrument of Indian classical music, present in both the northern and southern systems. The function of this chordophone is to provide a sound in the background, that acts as a drone for improvisation.
In Arabic the term rebab indicates a bowed instrument; in fact the two half-moon inlets that characterize the shape of the Rabab's sound box suggest that it was only later converted into a direct pluck instrument.
The Svaramandala is a chordophone used by singers for accompaniment. Kallinatha in his commentary on Śārṅgadeva's Saṅgīta Ratnākara coincides the matakokilavīṇā of Bharata Muni's time with the Svaramaṇḍala,
The Sanṭoor is a dulcimer that has only recently entered Indian classical music scene. It is considered one of the most important developments of the twentieth century in Indian Classical music.
The transverse flute used in Indian classical music, is capable of reproducing all the delicate movements, ornamentations and nuances of the human voice. This instrument finds references in many sacred texts.
Among the main contributions of Indian instrumental technology, both in terms of production quantity and timbre quality, bifacial convex diaphragms occupy a place of primary importance in Indian Classical Music.
In the folk and tribal music of different regions of India, various types of stringed instruments are found with a very varied tradition. In the Rajasthani tradition there are more than ten types of Sāraṅgī.
This name derives from two sanskrit terms "pakshe vadya", or from the Persian "pakh awaz" which means soft sounding. The pakahwaj became the main percussion in the north, while the mridangam assumed centrality in the south.
The term Sarod, of Persian origin, means "song" or "melody". All hypotheses regarding the origin of the Sarod, are based on many assumptions and inferences. The general opinion is that it is a developed version of the Rabab,
One of the oldest and most widespread percussion instruments are the timpani, with a conical-shaped body, the skin of which is often struck with beaters modeled in an arched shape or simply straight, with a knobbed head.
The terms Shahana, Shahanay or Shennay identify the zurna, a wooden aerophone typical of Persian musical culture. In Iran we can still find various styles of this instrument which vary both in size and in the quality of wood used.
Tabla are the percussion instruments that best represent Indian musical culture. This instrument, used mainly in the Hindustani style, accompanies singing, instrumental music and dance.
The khol is the most used percussion in the north-eastern region of India, often linked to the Vaishnava cult of Bengal and Assam, it is also often called mridang since the body is made of terracotta (mrit means clay).
Probably in the past the pakhavaj and the mridangam presented much fewer differences and are in fact to be associated with a single archetype, but they developed over the centuries within two different styles,
Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape with the two ends joined on which a membrane is applied.
The sound production techniques and the structure are identical to the shennay, the differences are mostly related to the dimensions and some small details. The double reed is fixed on a metal support which fits onto the wooden body.
The violin, which in India is also called Behalā, as we know, is one of the first Western instruments to have been introduced, more than a century and a half ago, into Indian music by Baluswamy Dikshitar (1786-1858), a great music scholar caranatica.
The Suraśṛṁgāra, often written Sursingar in many respects similar to the Surabahar, is a reinterpretation of the Rabab created in Benares under the supervision of Zafar Khān.
The moorchang, is a typical example of a universal instrument. In Italy it is a popular instrument called the wind chime or marranzano and although it takes on different forms, it is used all over the world.
The tavil belongs to the folk music tradition of South India, and is often played with a wind ensemble called periya melam. This percussion has a barrel shape with a single-layered stem, obtained from a single cylindrical block of wood.
Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape.
The term bhanda vadya is used to indicate all terracotta percussion instruments with a spherical body, practically real vases of various shapes and sizes.
The term "Mohan veena" can denote one of two distinct plucked string instruments utilized in Indian classical music, particularly in Hindustani classical music, which is traditionally associated with the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent.