Raga
In describing a Rāga, the following aspects hold fundamental importance:
1. The name
2. The Āroha and Avaroha (ascending and descending movements)
3. The Ṭhāṭa (musical scale)
4. The Laya (tempo), indicating whether it is slow, intermediate, or fast
5. Whether the aesthetic value is expressed in the Purvāṁga or Uttaraṁga (lower or upper tetrachord)
6. The Vādī, also called Aṁśa (dominant note)
7. The Graha, specifying the opening and concluding notes
8. The section of the scale that must prevail
9. The Jāti, indicating whether it is Sampūrṇa, Ṣāḍava, or Auḍuva (heptatonic, hexatonic, or pentatonic)
10. Classification based on the criteria of Ṥuddha, Sālaṅka or Chāyālaga, Saṁkīrṇa (pure, mixed, or blended)
11. The Calana (progression), indicating whether it is Ṥuddha or Vakra (regular or irregular)
12. Exhibition time, specifying the season or time as appropriate
13. The Pakaḍa, a short phrase useful for immediately recognizing the Rāga, following the principle of 'Rañjayati Iti Rāgah'.
According to the Saṁgītaratnākara, the term Rāga has two meanings:
1. The sound produced through the Svaras (notes), forming a cluster of notes that attract the listener's mind.
2. The sound produced through the Svaras and Varṇas, which attract people's minds.
This definition emphasizes the unique arrangement and interrelation of notes, distinct from compositional harmony, contributing to the aesthetic enjoyment of the listener. The Indian classical music system has created countless Rāgas through precise rules governing composition, juxtaposition, and interrelation of notes.
The ten Ṭhāṭas are recognized, serving as a foundation for creating various Rāgas. The Jāti system classifies Rāgas based on the number of notes used (Sampūrṇa, Ṣāḍava, Auḍuva). The purity classification distinguishes between Ṥuddha, Sālaṅka or Chāyālaga, and Saṁkīrṇa Rāgas.
Paṇdit Viṣṇunārāyaṇa Bhātakhaṇḍe's classification criteria include the number of notes used, the presence of Vādī, and the time of day or year for exposition. Additionally, Rāgas are grouped based on their psychological impact, Ma's nature, and moments of the day or night.
The concept of Goṣṭī reflects the sentimental nature of Rāgas within a group, not necessarily governed by identical notes. Some principal Rāgas include:
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Kānhaḍā
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Mālakauśa
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Kāfī
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Malaśrī
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Kāmoda
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Megha
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Khamāj
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Lalita
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Gauḍa Sāraṅga
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Ṥaṅkarā
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Naṭa
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Ṥuddha Kalyāṇa
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Vṛndāvanīsāraṅga
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Ṥuddha Malhāra
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Bilāvala
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Śrī
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Bihāga
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Sindhu
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Bhairava
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Hindola
The ideal time for executing Rāgas is classified based on the time of day, season, and psychological impact. This classification helps evoke the intended mood and aesthetic experience for both the musician and the listener.
Moments of the day:
(1) Dawn
(2) Early morning
(3) Late morning
(4) Early afternoon
(5) Sunset
(6) Evening
(7) Night
(8) Late at night
The moments of the day are classified as follows in a list of Rāgas ordered according to the time of day, widely accepted by the Seniyā Gharāna and much of the musicological community:
- 4:00-5:30 AM: Vasanta, Paraja, Sohanī, Lalita, Pañcama, Bhāṭiyāra, Vibhāsa, Bhākāra
- 5:30-7:00 AM: Megharañjanī, Vibhāsa, Jogiyā, Kālīṁgaḍā, Prabhāta, Rāmakalī, Guṅakalī or Guṅakarī, Bhairava
- 7:00-10:00 AM: Hindola, Malaśrī, Gauḍasāraṅga
- 10:00-11:30 AM: Āsāvarī, Bhairavī, Toḍī, Jaunapurī, Kaṭa, Deśī
- 11:30 AM-1:00 PM: Sūhā, Sughrāī, Devaśāśkha, Sāraṅga
- 1:00-4:00 PM: Haṁsakiṁkiṇī, Paṭamañjarī, Pradīpikā, Dhāni, Bhīmapalāśrī, Dhanāśrī, Pīlū, Multāni
- 4:00-5:30 PM: Pūravī, Puriyā, Dhanāśrī, Jayaśrī, Revā, Śrī, Triveṇī, Taṁka, Mālavī, Gaurī
- 5:30-7:00 PM: Puriyā, Māravā, Jayet, Mālīgaurā, Sājagiri, Varāṭī
- 7:00-10:00 PM: Yamana, Bhūpālī, Ṥuddha, Kalyāṇa, Jayet Kalyāṇa, Candrakānta, Hamīra, Kāmoda, Syāma, Chāyānaṭa, Bihāga, Hemakalyāṇa, Naṭa, Maluhā, Ṥaṅkarā, Durgā, Māṁḍ, Pahāḍī
- 10:00-11:30 PM: Khamāj, Jhiṁjhoṭī, Tilaṁga, Khambāvatī, Durgā, Rāgeśrī, Gārā, Suraṭha, Deśa, Tilaka Kāmoda, Jayajayantī
- 11:30 PM-1:00 AM: Kāfī, Saindhavī, Sindhūrā, Bāgeśrī, Bahār, Ṥahāna, Megha, Malhāra
- 1:00-4:00 AM: Darbārīkānhaḍā, Aḍāṇā, Nāyakīkānhaḍā, Kauśika Kānhaḍā, Mālakauśa
Raga-Citra
The term "Raga Citra" refers to the portrayal of various Rāgas in an anthropomorphic manner through paintings, capturing details derived from poetic imagination.
Ragini
Distinguishing between a Rāga and a Rāginī lacks a logical method, but we should make an effort to accept that exoteric knowledge transcends the boundaries of logic and rationality. However, conventionally, the six Rāgas symbolize the six Indian seasons, with the remaining categorized as Rāginīs. Another perspective assigns a male nature to the six Rāgas and a female nature to the Rāginīs. Additionally, there are Putras, denoting the children of Ragas and Raginis.
Although some associate the distinction with grammatical references, instances like Toḍī and Gurjarī, despite having female names, are considered Ragas (masculine nature) in the Saṁgītaratnākara.
It is essential to acknowledge that there has been limited in-depth research on the subject of Rāginīs.
Rakti
An adjective denoting a sweet or enchanting essence in relation to a Rāga.
Ramya Giti
A commendable melodic composition created outside the confines of Rāga rules.
Ranjakata
An adjective signifying a delightful essence in relation to a Rāga.
Rasa
The Dhvani-Rasa aesthetic theory contends that the evocation of a well-defined aesthetic sentiment through a literary, pictorial, or musical "object" occurs indirectly. For instance, in poetry, to convey love, one might refrain from saying, "Oh, my love, how much I miss you," opting instead for "I raised my eyes to the sky, there was the moon, but you weren't there." Concerning Rasa, one could almost speak of synesthesia, an expressive association between two words related to different sensory spheres, such as "the sweetness of a sound." This term is often translated not only as "feeling" but also as "flavor," "perfume," and "essence," as if the scent of dawn were nestled between the notes of Raag Bhairaw, Raag Lalit, or Raag Bathiyar. From an academic standpoint, these considerations are termed "theories," as they outright reject anything not scientifically demonstrated, deeming the temporal location of the Raga and its connection to a specific Rasa entirely arbitrary. From a traditional perspective, the student must absorb from the Master the ability to sense and convey these "aesthetic essences," endeavoring to elevate their worldly or profane feelings to a higher, divine sphere. In essence, "love" should serve as the fundamental reference for manifestation, akin to Dante and the Faithful of Love, utilizing this tool to access elevated levels of consciousness. Generally, these are "theories" for musicologists and "reality" for musicians and impassioned listeners known as rasika.
The meaning of this term, according to Saṁgītaratnākara, lies in the emotional change, both physical and mental, brought about by the perception of a thing or quality. While opinions vary on the actual number of Rasas, nine varieties are commonly recognized:
1. Ādi or Ṥṛṁgāra Rasa - the primordial emotion arising from love or sexual instinct
2. Hāsya Rasa - the emotion arising from laughter
3. Karuṇa Rasa - the melancholic emotion
4. Raudra Rasa - the emotion arising from anger or rage
5. Vīra Rasa - the emotion arising from courage
6. Bhayānaka Rasa - the emotion arising from fear
7. Vībhatsa Rasa - the emotion arising from disgust or aversion
8. Adbhuta Rasa - the emotion arising from wonder
9. Ṥānta Rasa - the emotion resulting from the search for the ultimate truth
Those acknowledging only eight Rasas view Ṥānta Rasa as the cessation of every emotion, representing the neutral and natural state of the mind. Those recognizing ten Rasas also include Vātsalya Rasa, or love towards parents. Still, others introduce three Rasas - Bhakti (devotional love), Sneha (affection), and Laulya (greed).
The nine principal Rasas:
1. Rasa: Ādi or Ṥṛṁgāra
- Sthāyī Bhāva: Love
- Sañcārī Bhāva: Curiosity, reflection, exhaustion, fatigue
- Anubhāva: Looking out of the corner of the eye, waving the arms, biting the upper lip
- Vibhāva: Spring, flowers, gardens, songs and dances, sandalwood essence, looking at a figure
2. Rasa: Hāsya
- Sthāyī Bhāva: Rice
- Sañcārī Bhāva:
- Anubhāva: Flickering of the eyes, cheeks, and lips, winking
- Vibhāva: Shamelessness, imitating others, aversion towards something, indiscreet words, dishonesty
3. Rasa: Karuṇa
- Sthāyī Bhāva: Affliction
- Sañcārī Bhāva: Exhaustion, fatigue, terror, wonder, deserting, hoarseness, anxiety, curiosity, madness
- Anubhāva: Shedding of tears, feeling of anguish, dizziness, sigh, outburst of anger, paleness, pounding of the heart or head, wasting the body
- Vibhāva: Loss of wife, child, or friend, danger, exile, damage, offense, wrong
4. Rasa: Raudra
- Sthāyī Bhāva: Anger, rage
- Sañcārī Bhāva: Anxiety, vigor, violence, agility, having a devil in one's hair
- Anubhāva: Frowning of the eyebrows, red eyes, biting of the lips, tension in the
jaws, clenching of the palms, chasing the enemy, hitting, beating with the arms, bleeding
- Vibhāva: Fierce creatures, lies, anger, illicit pursuit of the wives of others, slandering customs or education
5. Rasa: Vīra
- Sthāyī Bhāva: Courage
- Sañcārī Bhāva: Having a devil in the hair, anxiety, violence
- Anubhāva: Charity, sacrifice, speaking in profound and thoughtful terms
- Vibhāva: Ethics, modesty, glory, ability to wage war
6. Rasa: Bhayānaka
- Sthāyī Bhāva: Fear
- Sañcārī Bhāva: Anxiety, tiredness, fear, wonder, terror, death, weakness, misfortune
- Anubhāva: Trembling or stiffness in hands, eyes and feet, dry mouth, fear
- Vibhāva: Seeing frightening animals or people, hearing terrible sounds, hearing news of the death of a loved one
7. Rasa: Vībhatsa
- Sthāyī Bhāva: Disgust, aversion
- Sañcārī Bhāva: Wonder, anxiety, misfortune, illness, death
- Anubhāva: Trembling of the body, flapping of the lips, jaws, hesitation in walking
- Vibhāva: Unacceptable facts, forbidden acts, anxiety-causing facts
8. Rasa: Adbhuta
- Sthāyī Bhāva: Wonder
- Sañcārī Bhāva: Stupefaction, sweating, anxiety, reverence
- Anubhāva: Wide eyes, fixed gaze, trembling, praise, joyful din, voice strangled by the intensity of feeling, pleasure
- Vibhāva: Obtaining a rare object, vision of space travelers, vision of sky ships, witnessing a magical feat or otherworldly palaces
9. Rasa: Ṥānta
- Sthāyī Bhāva: Indifference due to the highest wisdom
- Sañcārī Bhāva: Madness caused by extreme pleasure, enjoyment through ultimate truth, retentive faculty of the mind
- Anubhāva: Conversations regarding high knowledge, looking at the tip of the nose, reflecting on the implications of the sacred texts regarding the liberation of the soul, initiation towards the knowledge of the divine spirit
- Vibhāva: Aversion towards the material world, finding trouble in worldly things, cultivating the company of sages, discussing spiritual matters, pilgrimages
"Facing Heaven, as if kneeling before an absent lover."
Rezakhani
The Gat compositions following the Tarānā style are referred to as Rezākhānī Gat.
There are divergent claims regarding their origin; some assert that Gholām Rezā, a disciple of Masīd Khān from the Gharāna of Miyān Tānsen, directly invented them. Others believe it is an innovation of Masīd Khān himself, intending to dedicate the style to his devoted pupil.
It is noteworthy that Masīd Khān's generation exclusively recognized the Masīdkhānī style. Rezākhānī, also known as Pūrvī Bāj or the oriental style, originated from a city east of Delhi, attributed to Gholām Rezā.
Similarly, Masīdkhānī is identified as the Western style or Pachāvī Bāj, with Jaipur lying to the west of Delhi. These two styles exhibit diametrically opposite characteristics. While Masīdkhānī is marked by a slow tempo and simple Bola, Rezākhānī is showcased with fast tempos, and the complex Bols plays a fundamental role.
Following the Rezākhānī Gat, the performance includes the Bāṁṭa, followed by the Ṭukḍā.
The distinctive feature between these two aforementioned segments lies in the complexity of the Bols.
Rela
This term translates as 'forced shower'. In the simple but fast Bols Tabla they are called Relā. A Relā features both Khuli and Mudi, and usually uses Bols as 'Gheḍenāk', 'Dheredhere Keṭetāk'.
Rishab
The second swara of the musical scale, known as Re or R, is attributed by some to the cry produced by a bull. Ṛṣabha, also referred to as Re or R, encompasses three Ṥrutī, namely Dayāvatī, Rañjanī, and Raktikā. Its natural form is situated on the latter, although current conventions often associate it with Dayāvatī Ṥrutī.
Ritu
The Seasons and Ragas.
Indian culture recognizes six seasons: Grīṣma (summer), Varṣā (rainy season), Ṥarada (autumn), Hemanta (wet season), Ṥisira or Ṥita (winter), and Vasanta (spring). These align with specific months of the year as follows:
1. Vaiśākha and Jaiṣṭha (mid-April to mid-June) – Summer
2. Āṣāḍha and Srāvaṇa (mid-June to mid-August) – Rainy season, monsoon
3. Bhādra and Āsvina (mid-August to mid-October) – Autumn
4. Kārtika and Agrahāyana (mid-October to mid-December) – Wet season
5. Pauṣa and Māgha (mid-December to mid-February) – Winter
6. Phālguna and Caitra (mid-February to mid-April) – Spring
Certain Ragas exhibit a distinct seasonal character. For example:
- Summer: Rāga Dīpaka
- Rainy Season: Rāga Megha
- Autumn: Rāga Bhairava
- Wet Season: Rāga Mālakauśa
- Winter: Rāga Śrī
- Spring: Rāga Hindola
These Ragas possess the unique feature that, during their respective seasons, they can be performed at any time. For instance, Rāga Mālakauśa, traditionally a midnight Rāga, can be played at various times during the wet season.
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The main instruments of Indian Classical Music
The Sitar is the icon of Indian Classical music. The structure and tonal quality of this instrument is the result of several years of hard work and dedication of both the musicians and the master luthiers.
Goṭu Vādyama is a modified and developed form of Ektantri Veena, appeared on the scene of the Carnatic music system about hundred fifty years ago, it can be considered the Vichitra Veena of South India.
The name Rudra Vina, often written Rudra Veena, first appears in Nārada's Saṃgīta Makaranda between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and is supposed to be a derivation of the Kinnarī Vīṇā.
The Taus, the Dilruba and the Esraj are North Indian bowed instruments, all three with hybrid characteristics of the Sitar, such as long necks, fingerboard and metal strings, and of the Sāraṅgī such as the crafted soundboard Leather.
The Saraswati Veena, is very different from the Vīṇā of northern India. In fact, the arrangement of the main strings and cikari, the posture and the sound production techniques remain the same.
The Vichitra Vina, often written Vichitra Veena, saw its splendor towards the beginning of the twentieth century but many indications lead us to think that it is a developed and modified version of a very ancient instrument.
The Surabahar, often written Surbahar, was created, according to tradition, by Gholām Mohammad Khān, disciple of Piyār Khān and Omrāo Khān. Much larger than the Sitār, it is used, both in the Dhrupad and in the Khayal.
The Tampura is a fundamental instrument of Indian classical music, present in both the northern and southern systems. The function of this chordophone is to provide a sound in the background, that acts as a drone for improvisation.
In Arabic the term rebab indicates a bowed instrument; in fact the two half-moon inlets that characterize the shape of the Rabab's sound box suggest that it was only later converted into a direct pluck instrument.
The Svaramandala is a chordophone used by singers for accompaniment. Kallinatha in his commentary on Śārṅgadeva's Saṅgīta Ratnākara coincides the matakokilavīṇā of Bharata Muni's time with the Svaramaṇḍala,
The Sanṭoor is a dulcimer that has only recently entered Indian classical music scene. It is considered one of the most important developments of the twentieth century in Indian Classical music.
The transverse flute used in Indian classical music, is capable of reproducing all the delicate movements, ornamentations and nuances of the human voice. This instrument finds references in many sacred texts.
Among the main contributions of Indian instrumental technology, both in terms of production quantity and timbre quality, bifacial convex diaphragms occupy a place of primary importance in Indian Classical Music.
In the folk and tribal music of different regions of India, various types of stringed instruments are found with a very varied tradition. In the Rajasthani tradition there are more than ten types of Sāraṅgī.
This name derives from two sanskrit terms "pakshe vadya", or from the Persian "pakh awaz" which means soft sounding. The pakahwaj became the main percussion in the north, while the mridangam assumed centrality in the south.
The term Sarod, of Persian origin, means "song" or "melody". All hypotheses regarding the origin of the Sarod, are based on many assumptions and inferences. The general opinion is that it is a developed version of the Rabab,
One of the oldest and most widespread percussion instruments are the timpani, with a conical-shaped body, the skin of which is often struck with beaters modeled in an arched shape or simply straight, with a knobbed head.
The terms Shahana, Shahanay or Shennay identify the zurna, a wooden aerophone typical of Persian musical culture. In Iran we can still find various styles of this instrument which vary both in size and in the quality of wood used.
Tabla are the percussion instruments that best represent Indian musical culture. This instrument, used mainly in the Hindustani style, accompanies singing, instrumental music and dance.
The khol is the most used percussion in the north-eastern region of India, often linked to the Vaishnava cult of Bengal and Assam, it is also often called mridang since the body is made of terracotta (mrit means clay).
Probably in the past the pakhavaj and the mridangam presented much fewer differences and are in fact to be associated with a single archetype, but they developed over the centuries within two different styles,
Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape with the two ends joined on which a membrane is applied.
The sound production techniques and the structure are identical to the shennay, the differences are mostly related to the dimensions and some small details. The double reed is fixed on a metal support which fits onto the wooden body.
The violin, which in India is also called Behalā, as we know, is one of the first Western instruments to have been introduced, more than a century and a half ago, into Indian music by Baluswamy Dikshitar (1786-1858), a great music scholar caranatica.
The Suraśṛṁgāra, often written Sursingar in many respects similar to the Surabahar, is a reinterpretation of the Rabab created in Benares under the supervision of Zafar Khān.
The moorchang, is a typical example of a universal instrument. In Italy it is a popular instrument called the wind chime or marranzano and although it takes on different forms, it is used all over the world.
The tavil belongs to the folk music tradition of South India, and is often played with a wind ensemble called periya melam. This percussion has a barrel shape with a single-layered stem, obtained from a single cylindrical block of wood.
Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape.
The term bhanda vadya is used to indicate all terracotta percussion instruments with a spherical body, practically real vases of various shapes and sizes.
The term "Mohan veena" can denote one of two distinct plucked string instruments utilized in Indian classical music, particularly in Hindustani classical music, which is traditionally associated with the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent.