Dictionary of Indian Music

M

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Madhya Laya

The intermediate tempo, often regarded as the natural or standard tempo, serves as a reference point. It is noteworthy that half of this tempo is recognized as slow time, referred to as "vilambit," while double the speed is termed "drut."

Madhya Laya is alternatively referred to as Barābara Laya. It is important to emphasize that all tempos are relative concepts, and consequently, there isn't a specific reference time to precisely define the speed of rhythmic cycles in Indian classical music, whether it be slow, medium, or fast.

Madhyam Saptaka

This term designates the central octave, signifying the intermediate range composed of seven notes denoted as SRGMPDN. The lower range is referred to as Mandra Saptak, whereas the upper range is termed Tar Saptak.

Madhyam

The fourth degree of the scale, positioned precisely at the midpoint, is known as Madhyama, with "Madhya" signifying 'middle' or 'center.'

This note encompasses four microtones or Ṥrutīs, namely:

- Vajrikā,
- Prasāriṇī,
- Prīti,
- Mārjanī.

The note itself is situated on this final microtone.

Madhyama Grama

One of the three scales indicated in classical texts where:

- Sa, Ma and Dha have four microtones,

- R and P three microtones each

- G and N two microtones.

Manca (Mañca)

Manca

This term carries a dual significance: firstly, it refers to the pentagram in Western music; secondly, in the realm of percussion, it signifies a cycle or Āvardā.

Mandra Saptak

The lower register, also known as the lower octave, is denoted by placing a dot below the Svara, such as ṢṚG̣ṂP̣ḌṆ

Manjadar

A variety of Ṭukḍā or Gat and Relā designed for performance on the Tāblā. The distinctive feature of this type of composition is that the rhythm in the head and tail differs from that in the central portion.

Manjha

A variety of Tuk.

Marga Sangeet

In earlier times, only devotional songs that strictly adhered to the principles of sacred literature were categorized as Mārga Saṁgita. However, in contemporary usage, classical music is also referred to by this term. Mārga Saṁgita continues to denote music that adheres to the guidelines laid out in classical texts, with "Mārga" signifying 'the path shown by the wise.'

Masitkhani

Masīd Khān, the grandson of Karīm Sen and great-grandson of Bilās Khān, was the son of Miyān Tānsen and a pivotal figure in the evolution of the Sitār. He introduced significant innovations both in terms of instrument design, adding two strings, and in technical aspects, contributing a distinctive compositional style that bears his name in the realm of instrumental music. Prior to Masīd Khān, the predominant style, widely used in instrumental music, was established by Amīr Khusro. Bahādur Khān, also known as Bahādur Sen, Masīd Khān's son, initiated the Jaipur Gharānā. This style is characterized by compositions with a slow tempo, featuring a distinctive Bola sequence:

After presenting the composition in its four parts, Vistāras are played, focusing on the Aṁśa Svara, followed by exploration of movements around the Saṁvādī. Subsequently, typical phrasings of the Rāga are showcased, leading to the exposition of Tāna, often concluding on the eleventh beat before returning to the composition. It's worth noting that contemporary renditions may deviate from the original style due to modifications and additions made over successive generations.

Mata

In Hindustani musicology, various authors have expressed divergent opinions within these studies. Often, these perspectives don't align with current musical practices. However, delving into historical awareness related to Indian musicology is valuable. For instance, the Rāga and Rāginī described in classical texts, despite sharing the same names, may appear distinct. In contemporary times, the major diatonic scale, also known as Bilavāla, has become the primary or natural scale, marking a shift from the original representation in the Śāstra, where it corresponded to the Kāfī scale, owing to a desire for cultural homogenization.

Yet, there persists an inclination to reference contemporary Rāgas based on past writings. Hence, it is advisable to list the Rāgas while considering the family of Rāga and Rāginī, including 'sons and daughters-in-law.'

Four Matas or opinions of the sages are recognized:

Brahmā
Bharata
Hanumanta
Kallinātha

Brahmā

According to this view, there are six Rāgas, each having six respective wives or Rāginīs. While there is no textual support in the Śāstras for this opinion, many sources report it. The absence of any textual reference to this perspective, despite being conveyed by teachers and scholars, emphasizes the traditional mode of knowledge transmission, which primarily occurred through oral communication, from Guru to disciple.

- Rāga: Bhairava
-Rāginī: Bhairavī, Gujarī, Rāmakalī, Guṇakalī, Saindhavī, Bangālī

- Rāga: Śrī
- Rāginī: Mālaśrī, Triveṇī, Gauri, Kedārī, Madhumādhavī, Pahāḍī

- Rāga: Megh
- Rāginī: Malhārī, Saurātī, Saveri, Kauśikī, Gāndhārī, Haraśṛngārī

- Rāga: Vasanta

- Rāginī: Deśī, Devagirī, Varāṭī, Toḍī, Lalitā, Hindolī

- Rāga: Pañcama

- Rāginī: Vibhāsa, Bhūpālī, Karanāṭī, Varahaṁsikā, Mālavī, Paṭamañjarī

- Rāga: Naṭa

- Rāginī: Kāmodī, Kalyānī, Ābherī, Nātikā, Sārangī, Hamīr

Bharata

According to this opinion, there are six Rāgas, each with five Rāginīs, five Sons, and five Daughters-in-law.

-Rāga:Bhairava

-Rāginī: Madhumādhavī, Bhairavī, Bangālī, Barārī, Saindhavī

-Sons: Bilāvala, Pañcama, Deśākhya, Devagāndhāra, Vibhāsa

-Daughters-in-law: Rāmakalī, Suhāi, Sugharāi, Paṭamañjarī, Toḍī

-Rāga: Malkauns

-Rāginī: Guṇkalī, Khambāvatī, Gurjarī, Bhūpāli, Gaurī

-Sons: Soma, Parāśana, Baḍaṁsa, Kakubha, Bangāla

-Daughters-in-law: Suraṭhī, Triveṇī, Karnāṭī, Āsāvarī, Goḍagiri

-Rāga: Hindola

-Rāginī: Belāvalī, Deśākhī, Lalitā, Bhimapalāsī, Mālavī

-Sons: Rekhabahṁsa, Vasanta, Lokahāsa, Gāndharva, Lalita, Śuddhakalyāna

-Daughters-in-law: Kedārā, Kāmodī, Bihāgarā, Kāfī, Paraja

-Rāga: Dipaka

-Rāginī: Naṭa, Malhārī, Kedārī, Kānaḍā, Bhārekā

-Sons: Śuddhakalyāna, Saurātha, Deśakāra, Hamīra, Mārū

-Daughters-in-law: Baḍaṁsī, Desavarāṭī, Vairāṭī, Devagirī, Sindharā

-Rāga: Śrī

-Rāginī: Vāsantī, Mālavī, Mālaśrī, Sahānā, Dhanāśrī

-Sons: Naṭa, Chāyānaṭa, Kānaḍā, Yamana, Sankarābharana

-Daughters-in-law: Śyama, Puriyā, Gurjarī, Hambīrī, Aḍānā

-Rāga: Megh

-Rāginī: Sāranga, Bankā, Gāndharva, Malhārī, Multānī

-Sons: Bahādurī, Naṭanārāyaṇa, Mālava,Jayati, Kāmoda

-Daughters-in-law: Pahāḍī, Jayantī, Gāndharī, Pūravī, Jayajayantī

Hanumanta

Although there are no references in the Śāstra, many refer to this classification system. In contemporary Musicology, this Mata corresponds to the currently used classification system.

- Rāga: Bhairava
- Rāginī: Madhyamādī, Bhairavī, Bangālī, Barāṭikā, Saindhavī

- Rāga: Kauśika

- Rāginī: Toḍī, Khambāvatī, Gaurī, Gunakirī, Kakubha

- Rāga: Hindola
- Rāginī: Belāvalī, Rāmakirī, Daśākhya, Paṭamañjarī, Lalitā

- Rāga: Dipaka

- Rāginī: Kedārī, Kānaḍā, Deśī, Kāmodī, Naṭikā

- Rāga: Śrī
- Rāginī: Vasantī, Mālavī, Mālaśrī, Dhanyāskā, Āsāvarī

- Rāga: Megha

- Rāginī: Malhārī, Deśakārī, Bhūpālī, Gurjarī, Ṭaṅka

Kallinātha

Although there are no Śāstra references, Kallinātha was a commentator on the Saṁgītaratnākara. According to this system, there are six Rāgas and thirty-six Rāginīs.

- Rāga: Śrī

- Rāginī: Gaurī, Kolāhala, Dhavala, Barorājī or Radārangī, Mālakauśa, Devagāndhāra

- Rāga: Pañcama

- Rāginī: Triveṇī, Hastāntaritahā or Stambhatīrthikā, Khamāicī, Ābheri or Ahīrī, Kokabha, Barārī

- Rāga: Bhairava

- Rāginī: Bhairavī, Belāvalī, Rāmakirī, Daśākhya, Paṭamañjarī, Lalitā

- Rāga: Megh

- Rāginī: Bangālī, Madhurā or Mudrā, Kāmodī, Dhanāśrī, Devatīrthī, Devalī or Tirthakī

- Rāga: Naṭa-Nārayaṇa

- Rāginī: Tarabankī or Devalī, Tilangī or Tilakī, Pūrvī, Gāndharī, Rāma or Virāma, Sindhu Malhārī or Ṥuddha Malhārī

- Rāga: Vasanta

- Rāginī: Āndālī, Gamakī, Paṭamañjarī, Gauḍagiri, Dhāmakī or Ṭaṅka, Devaśākha

It is essential to recognize the diverse opinions of these sages and understand their historical context within the realm of Hindustani musicology. The limitations of Western rationality have led to this classification system being considered only a poetic speculation, an imagination that has led to the Rāgas also being depicted pictorially. Furthermore, the fact that these Mata or opinions lack textual references does not mean that they are not credible. We must remember the fact that this, like many others, is an oral tradition which makes the art alive, therefore prone to formal modifications.

Matha

This term is introduced in Sangītaratnakara.

In stringed instruments, the term "Māṭhā" is used when the rhythmic combinations of strokes or Bola, such as Ladi and Ladaguthao, typically employed by percussion instruments, are sequentially played on the strings designated for melody and subsequently on the Cikārī.

Matra

A beat, serving as a unit of time measurement.

In Sanskrit, vowels exhibit two distinct time durations: a short duration and a long one. Sangitaratnakara states that a Matra or Nimeṣa Kāla corresponds to the time required to produce the sound of a short vowel or the time it takes to close and reopen the eyelids.

It is further explained that the duration to articulate five letters of the Sanskrit alphabet (Ka, Ca, Ṭa, Ta, and Pa) equals a Laghu Mātrā, and pronouncing ten of them results in a Guru Mātrā, which is twice as long. Similarly, pronouncing fifteen letters yields a Pluta Mātrā, three times the length of a Laghu Mātrā.

Tāla systems were devised to represent Mātrās through sound, facilitating the appreciation of intervals. The process of dividing infinite time into intervals, such as centuries, years, months, days, etc., is termed Mātrā.

Matu

The textual component of a composition is referred to as Matu. This term stands in opposition to Dathū, which pertains solely to melodic notation.

Mela

An alternative term for ladder or Ṭhāṭa is "Mela." Additionally, this term is used to denote festivals, with the Dhrupada Mela being particularly renowned.

Melakarta

Another way to characterize those Rāgas that serve as the basis for the reference scales or Ṭhāṭa. In the Carnatic system, a Raga is classified as a Melakarta if it fulfills the following criteria:

- Consists of seven notes
- Exhibits a consistent ascending and descending pattern
- Encompasses all seven notes in both ascending and descending sequences.

Here are the 72 Melakarta Rāgas divided into their 12 Chakras.

CHAKRA 1 - INDU

1. Kanakangi: S R1 G1 M1 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M1 G1 R1 S
2. Ratnangi: S R1 G1 M1 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M1 G1 R1 S
3. Ganamurti: S R1 G1 M1 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M1 G1 R1 S
4. Vanaspati: S R1 G1 M1 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M1 G1 R1 S
5. Manavati: S R1 G1 M1 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M1 G1 R1 S
6. Tanarupi: S R1 G1 M1 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M1 G1 R1 S

CHAKRA 2 - NETRA

7. Senavati: S R1 G2 M1 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M1 G2 R1 S
8. Hanumatodi: S R1 G2 M1 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M1 G2 R1 S
9. Dhenuka: S R1 G2 M1 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M1 G2 R1 S
10. Natakapriya: S R1 G2 M1 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M1 G2 R1 S
11. Kokilapriya: S R1 G2 M1 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M1 G2 R1 S
12. Rupavati: S R1 G2 M1 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M1 G2 R1 S

CHAKRA 3 - AGNI

13. Gayakapriya: S R1 G3 M1 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M1 G3 R1 S
14. Vakulabharanam: S R1 G3 M1 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M1 G3 R1 S
15. Mayamalavagaula: S R1 G3 M1 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M1 G3 R1 S
16. Chakravakam: S R1 G3 M1 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M1 G3 R1 S
17. Suryakantam: S R1 G3 M1 P D2 N3 S S N2 D2 P M1 G3 R1 S
18. Hatakambari: S R1 G3 M1 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M1 G3 R1 S

CHAKRA 4 - VEDA

19. Jhankaradhwani: S R2 G2 M1 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M1 G2 R2 S
20. Natabhairavi: S R2 G2 M1 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M1 G2 R2 S
21. Keeravani: S R2 G2 M1 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M1 G2 R2 S
22. Kharaharapriya: S R2 G2 M1 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M1 G2 R2 S
23. Gowrimanohari: S R2 G2 M1 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M1 G2 R2 S
24. Varunapriya: S R2 G2 M1 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M1 G2 R2 S

CHAKRA 5 - BANA

25. Mararanjani: S R2 G3 M1 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M1 G3 R2 S
26. Charukesi: S R2 G3 M1 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M1 G3 R2 S
27. Sarasangi: S R2 G3 M1 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M1 G3 R2 S
28. Harikambhoji: S R2 G3 M1 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M1 G3 R2 S
29. Dheerashankarabharanam: S R2 G3 M1 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M1 G3 R2 S
30. Naganandini: S R2 G3 M1 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M1 G3 R2 S

CHAKRA 6 - RUTU

31. Yagapriya: S R3 G3 M1 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M1 G3 R3 S
32. Ragavardhani: S R3 G3 M1 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M1 G3 R3 S
33. Gangeyabhushani: S R3 G3 M1 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M1 G3 R3 S
34. Vagadheeswari: S R3 G3 M1 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M1 G3 R3 S
35. Soolini: S R3 G3 M1 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M1 G3 R3 S
36. Chalanata: S R3 G3 M1 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M1 G3 R3 S

CHAKRA 7 - RISHI

37. Salagam: S R1 G1 M2 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M2 G1 R1 S
38. Jalarnavam: S R1 G1 M2 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M2 G1 R1 S
39. Jhalavarali: S R1 G1 M2 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M2 G1 R1 S
40. Navaneetam: S R1 G1 M2 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M2 G1 R1 S
41. Pavani: S R1 G1 M2 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M2 G1 R1 S
42. Raghupriya: S R1 G1 M2 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M2 G1 R1 S

CHAKRA 8 - VASU

43. Gavambodhi: S R1 G2 M2 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M2 G2 R1 S
44. Bhavapriya: S R1 G2 M2 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M2 G2 R1 S
45. Subhapantuvarali: S R1 G2 M2 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M2 G2 R1 S
46. Shadvidhamargini: S R1 G2 M2 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M2 G2 R1 S
47. Suvarnangi: S R1 G2 M2 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M2 G2 R1 S
48. Divyamani: S R1 G2 M2 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M2 G2 R1 S

CHAKRA 9 - BRAHMA

49. Dhavalambari: S R1 G3 M2 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M2 G3 R1 S
50. Namanarayani: S R1 G3 M2 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M2 G3 R1 S
51. Kamavardhini: S R1 G3 M2 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M2 G3 R1 S
52. Ramapriya: S R1 G3 M2 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M2 G3 R1 S
53. Gamanasrama: S R1 G3 M2 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M2 G3 R1 S
54. Viswambari: S R1 G3 M2 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M2 G3 R1 S

CHAKRA 10 - DISHI

55. Syamalangi: S R2 G2 M2 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M2 G2 R2 S
56. Shanmukhapriya: S R2 G2 M2 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M2 G2 R2 S
57. Simhendramadhyamam: S R2 G2 M2 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M2 G2 R2 S
58. Hemavati: S R2 G2 M2 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M2 G2 R2 S
59. Dharmavati: S R2 G2 M2 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M2 G2 R2 S
60. Neetimati: S R2 G2 M2 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M2 G2 R2 S

CHAKRA 11 - RUDRA

61. Kantamani: S R2 G3 M2 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M2 G3 R2 S
62. Rishabhapriya: S R2 G3 M2 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M2 G3 R2 S
63. Latangi: S R2 G3 M2 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M2 G3 R2 S
64. Vachaspati: S R2 G3 M2 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M2 G3 R2 S
65. Mechakalyani: S R2 G3 M2 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M2 G3 R2 S
66. Chitrambari: S R2 G3 M2 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M2 G3 R2 S

CHAKRA 12 - ADITYA

67. Sucharitra: S R3 G3 M2 P D1 N1 S S N1 D1 P M2 G3 R3 S
68. Jyotiswaroopini: S R3 G3 M2 P D1 N2 S S N2 D1 P M2 G3 R3 S
69. Dhatuvardhini: S R3 G3 M2 P D1 N3 S S N3 D1 P M2 G3 R3 S
70. Nasikabhooshani: S R3 G3 M2 P D2 N2 S S N2 D2 P M2 G3 R3 S
71. Kosalam: S R3 G3 M2 P D2 N3 S S N3 D2 P M2 G3 R3 S
72. Rasikapriya: S R3 G3 M2 P D3 N3 S S N3 D3 P M2 G3 R3 S

Mid

One of the primary techniques employed in the plucked chordophones of the Hindustani music system.

Following the activation of the string by the right hand, using either the middle or index finger, or a combination of both fingers of the left hand appropriately positioned on the fret, the string is drawn downward. This action results in an increase in the sound frequency, providing the musician with the capability to produce multiple notes with a single pluck.

Mastery of this technique demands considerable skill, making it particularly adept at replicating vocal nuances. Musicians can achieve levels of proficiency allowing them to emulate singing, even in the swiftest and most intricate passages.

Midakhanda

A variety of Tāna.
for example:
DNṠṘ DṘNṠ NDṠṘ DNṘṠ DṘṠN ṘṠND

Mirasi

This term is used to describe melodic and rhythmic musicians who accompany professional dancers, also known as Bāī or Tayafā.

Modedar

A variety of Ṭukḍā or Gat played in Tāblā.

Mohara

A specific composition performed during the Ālāpa, serving as an indication for concluding a Tāna or a Vistāra, can be exemplified as follows:

For instrumentalists:

(1) In a slow tempo: S - - S - - - - - SṆ SṆ R - S -

Ḍā - -Ḍā----- Ḍā Ḍā- Ḍā - Ḍā

Here, the symbol '-' denotes intervals expressed across the Cikārī, each of which should be relatively extended.

(2) In an intermediate tempo (faster than the previous one):

S - - S - - SṆ SṆ R - S -

Ḍā - -Ḍā-- Ḍā Ḍā- Ḍā – Ḍā

(3) In a fast tempo (faster than the previous one):

S - S - SṆ SṆ R S

Ḍā -Ḍā- Ḍā Ḍā Ḍā Ḍā

For vocalists:

(1) In a slow tempo: S S S S S S S S SṆ SṆ R - S -

Tā Nā Nā Tā Nā Nā Nā Nā Tā Nā Num Nā

(2) In an intermediate tempo (faster than the previous one):

S S S S S S SṆ SṆ R - S -

Tā Nā Nā Tā Nā Nā Tā Nā Num Nā

(3) In a fast tempo (faster than the previous one):

S S S S Ṇ Ṇ R S

Tā Nā Nā Nā Tā Nā Nū Ūm

It is essential for the intervals to maintain uniformity throughout the performance.

Mrdu

Soft or gentle. This term encompasses all diminished or flat notes, with the exception of Mṛdu Madhyama, which corresponds to the natural fourth degree but is distinctly different from the sole alternative, Tīvra Madhyama, representing the augmented or sharp fourth degree.

In certain texts, Tīvra Madhyama is identified as Mṛdu Pañcama.

Mudi

All the movements or strokes of the Tāblā and Bāṁyā requiring the palms or fingers to remain in contact with the Bāṁyā even after executing the strokes are referred to as Mudi Bols.

This technique is employed to produce muted sounds by preventing the percussion skin from freely vibrating.

The Mudi Bols include:

Ta, Te, Tī, Tet, Tik, Dherenak, Ra, Ṭa, Ṭe, Ṭī, Diṁ, Tiṁ, Dī, Ke, Kī, Kiṁ, Ka, Kat, Dhā, Dha, Dhe, Dhet, Dhit, Dhik.

Mudra

The movements of the fingers and hands are categorized as Mudrā Guṇa if they are aesthetically pleasing and as Mudrā Doṣa if they are not. In the Saṅgītaratnākara's Nāṭyādhyāya, which is dedicated to theatrical and dance expression, sixty-four Mudrās are mentioned for use in dance and theatrical performances.

The term "Mudra" is derived from Sanskrit, meaning "seal" or "closure." Mudras are energy blocks utilized in yoga, present in both Hindu and Buddhist traditions. In yogic practices, mudras play a vital role in controlling the energy flow through the body. Different energy blocks or mudras are employed depending on the desired objective.

Mudras find applications in meditation, dance, and prayer, with each mudra having distinct meanings and effectiveness, achievable through hand, eye, tongue, or whole-body gestures. In yoga, mudras also serve to channel energy and are believed to offer spiritual, mental, and physical benefits.

Numerous forms of yoga mudras accompany breathing exercises or pranayama. For instance, the Shankh Mudra, performed in the lotus position, positively affects the respiratory system, inducing a calming effect. Specific mudras aim to increase energy, relieve physical ailments, strengthen the body, enhance concentration, detoxify, and concentrate spiritual energy.

The five fingers symbolize the five elements:
- Thumb: Fire
- Index: Air
- Middle: Ether
- Ring finger: Earth
- Little finger: Water

The objective of practicing mudras is to balance these five elements, recommended to maintain each mudra position for at least 15 minutes.

Examples of yoga mudras and their benefits include:

1. Jyan Mudra:
- Purpose: Calm the mind and improve circulation.
- Technique: Touch the tip of the thumb to the tip of the index finger, keeping the other fingers extended.
- Benefits: Enhances memory, concentration, prevents insomnia, and addresses anger and depression.

2. Apan Mudra:
- Purpose: Reduces occurrences of constipation and urinary tract infections.
- Technique: Press the tip of the middle and ring fingers against the thumb, keeping other fingers extended.

3. Ling Mudra:
- Purpose: Generates warmth and relieves cough and cold symptoms.

4. Prana Mudra:
- Purpose: Moves energy through the body, dispelling diseases, and strengthening vision.
- Technique: Press the tips of the ring and little fingers against the top of the thumb, keeping the other two fingers extended.

5. Prithvi Mudra:
- Purpose: Creates happiness and strengthens the body.
- Technique: Touch the tip of the ring finger to the tip of the thumb, leaving the other fingers extended.

6. Shoonya Mudra:
- Purpose: Relieves earache.
- Technique: Place the middle finger at the base of the thumb, resting the thumb on the middle finger, with other fingers extended.

7. Surya Mudra:
- Purpose: Reduces weight.
- Technique: Place the tip of the ring finger on the base of the thumb and gently press the inside of the thumb onto the front of the ring finger.

8. Varun Mudra:
- Purpose: Refreshes the body and improves blood quality.
- Technique: Press the tip of the thumb against the tip of the little finger.

9. Vayu Mudra:
- Purpose: Helps with arthritis and nervous system tremors.
- Technique: Place the index finger on the base of the thumb, keeping other fingers extended.

Mukhra

A segment of the Sthāyī that encompasses the final five Mātrās before the Sama in a sixteen-beat cycle. This segment serves the purpose of gracefully concluding and re-entering the composition after various Paraṇas, Tānas, or Vistāras. It is commonly referred to as Gīta Bidārī or Pada Bidārī.

Mohara

Mukhaḍā, also known as Mohaḍā or Moḍā, represents a type of Ṭukḍā designed for the Tāblā. It initiates from the Phāṁk and concludes on the Sama. There is a contention suggesting that a Ṭukḍā featuring this particular characteristic should be performed three times in a cycle, commencing from the Sama and concluding on the subsequent Sama.

Moorcchana

In the past, it coincided with the Mīḍ, but now it exclusively denotes Āroha and Avaroha, representing the complete ascending (Krama) and descending (Vyutkrama) movement of a scale. Mūrcchanā corresponds to the modulation in Euroculture music. Currently, only the Mūrcchanā of the Ṣaḍja Grāma and the Madhyama Grāma are considered, as the Gāndhāra Grāma is considered obsolete. The distinction between the Ṣaḍja Grāma and the Madhyama Grāma depends on the value of the Ṥrutī in the notes P and D. The primary scale of the past aligns with the present-day Kāfī scale, featuring flat or Komala G and N. There are four types of Mūrcchanā in each Grāma based on the number of Ṥrutī in the notes G and N:

(1) Ṥuddha Mūrcchanā, where G and N are flat or Komala.

(2) Sakālīka Mūrcchanā, where only G remains flat, and N is augmented.

(3) Sāntara Mūrcchanā, where only N remains flat, and G is augmented.

(4) Sāntarakākalīka Mūrcchanā, where both N and G are augmented, creating the diatonic major scale.

Here are the Mūrcchanās of the Ṣaḍja Grāma and the Ṥuddha Mūrcchanās of the Madhyama Grāma, including names from the Śāstras and widely used Ṭhāṭas today:

Ṣaḍja Grāma

Ṥuddha Mūrcchanā

Saṁgītaratnākara Nārada Āroha Avaroha Scala Odierna Ṭhāṭa

1.Uttaramandrā Uttaravarṇā SRGMPDN NDPMGRS SRgMPDn Kāfī

2. Rajanī Abhirudgatā ṆSRGMPD DPMGRSṆ SRGMPDN Bilāvala

3. Uttarāyatā Asvakrāntā ḌṆSRGMP PMGRSṆḌ SrgMmdn -----

4.Ṥuddhaṣaḍja Saubīrī P̣ḌṆSRGM MGRSṆḌP̣ SRgMPdn Āsāvarī

5. Matsarīkṛt Hṛṣyakā ṂP̣ḌṆSRG GRSṆḌP̣Ṃ SRGMPDn Khamāj

6. Aśvakrāntā Uttarāyatā G̣ṂP̣ḌṆSR RSṆḌP̣ṂG̣ SRGmPDN Kalyāṇa

7. Abhirudgatā Rajanī ṚG̣ṂP̣ḌṆS SṆḌP̣ṂG̣Ṛ SrgMPdn Bhairavī

Madhyama Grāma

Ṥuddha Mūrcchanā

Saṁgītaratnākara Nārada Āroha Avaroha Scala Odierna Ṭhāṭa

1. Soubīrī Āpyāyanī MPDNṠṘĠ ĠṘṠNDPM SRGMPDn Khamāj

2. Harināśvā Visvahṛtā GMPDNṠṘ ṘṠNDPMG SRGmPDN Kalyāṇa

3. Kalopanatā Candrā RGMPDNṠ ṠNDPMGR SrgMPdn Bhairavī

4. Ṥuddhamadhya Hemā SRGMPDN NDPMGRS SRgMPDn Kāfī

5. Mārgī Kapardinī ṆSRGMPD DPMGRSṆ SRGMPDN Bilāvala

6. Pauravī Maitrī ḌṆSRGMP PMGRSṆḌ SrgMmdn -----

7. Hṛṣyakā Candrāvatī P̣ḌṆSRGM MGRSṆḌP̣ SRgMPdn Āsāvarī

Ṣaḍja Grāma

Sakālīka Mūrcchanā

Saṁgītaratnākara Āroha Avaroha Scala Odierna Ṭhāṭa

1.Uttaramandrā SRGMPDN NDPMGRS SRgMPDN -----

2. Rajanī ṆSRGMPD DPMGRSṆ SrgGmdn -----

3. Uttarāyatā ḌṆSRGMP PMGRSṆḌ SRgMmdn -----

4.Ṥuddhaṣaḍja P̣ḌṆSRGM MGRSṆḌP̣ SRGMPdn -----

5. Matsarīkṛt ṂP̣ḌṆSRG GRSṆḌP̣Ṃ SRGmdDn -----

6. Aśvakrāntā G̣ṂP̣ḌṆSR RSṆḌP̣ṂG̣ SRGmdDN -----

7. Abhirudgatā ṚG̣ṂP̣ḌṆS SṆḌP̣ṂG̣Ṛ SRgMPDN -----

Sāntara Mūrcchanā

Saṁgītaratnākara Āroha Avaroha Scala Odierna Ṭhāṭa

1.Uttaramandrā SRGMPDN NDPMGRS SRGMPDn Khamāj

2. Rajanī ṆSRGMPD DPMGRSṆ SRGmPDN Kalyāṇa

3. Uttarāyatā ḌṆSRGMP PMGRSṆḌ SrgMPdn Bhairavī

4.Ṥuddhaṣaḍja P̣ḌṆSRGM MGRSṆḌP̣ SRgMPDn Kāfī

5. Matsarīkṛt ṂP̣ḌṆSRG GRSṆḌP̣Ṃ SRGMPDN Bilāvala

6. Aśvakrāntā G̣ṂP̣ḌṆSR RSṆḌP̣ṂG̣ SrgGmdn -----

7. Abhirudgatā ṚG̣ṂP̣ḌṆS SṆḌP̣ṂG̣Ṛ SRgMPdn Āsāvarī

Sāntarakākalīka Mūrcchanā

Saṁgītaratnākara Āroha Avaroha Scala Odierna Ṭhāṭa

1.Uttaramandrā SRGMPDN NDPMGRS SRGMPDN Bilāvala

2. Rajanī ṆSRGMPD DPMGRSṆ SrgMmdn -----

3. Uttarāyatā ḌṆSRGMP PMGRSṆḌ SRgMPdn Āsāvarī

4.Ṥuddhaṣaḍja P̣ḌṆSRGM MGRSṆḌP̣ SRMPDn Khamāj

5. Matsarīkṛt ṂP̣ḌṆSRG GRSṆḌP̣Ṃ SRGmPDN Kalyāṇa

6. Aśvakrāntā G̣ṂP̣ḌṆSR RSṆḌP̣ṂG̣ SrgMPdn Bhairavī

7. Abhirudgatā ṚG̣ṂP̣ḌṆS SṆḌP̣ṂG̣Ṛ SRgMPdn Kāfī

Except for Sakālīka Mūrcchanā, all other Mūrcchanās have counterparts in the widely used Ṭhāṭas today. There are controversies regarding the distribution of Ṥrutī, and it's notable that, for instance, the Bilāvala Ṭhāṭa can be reached through multiple routes.

Murki

An equivalent term for Khaṭkā, a form of Ṥabdālaṁkāra, is a 'melodic cluster,' employed to ornament another note. For instance, in SRGR^S, the sequence 'SRGR' functions to adorn the S note, executed swiftly enough to create the impression of a unified note, despite constituting a distinct phrasing on its own.

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Instruments of Indian Music

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The main instruments of Indian Classical Music

Sitar

The Sitar is the icon of Indian Classical music. The structure and tonal quality of this instrument is the result of several years of hard work and dedication of both the musicians and the master luthiers.

DA 130 $

Gotu Vadyam

Goṭu Vādyama is a modified and developed form of Ektantri Veena, appeared on the scene of the Carnatic music system about hundred fifty years ago, it can be considered the Vichitra Veena of South India.

DA 130 $

Rudra Vina

The name Rudra Vina, often written Rudra Veena, first appears in Nārada's Saṃgīta Makaranda between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and is supposed to be a derivation of the Kinnarī Vīṇā.

DA 130 $

Taus Dilruba Esraj

The Taus, the Dilruba and the Esraj are North Indian bowed instruments, all three with hybrid characteristics of the Sitar, such as long necks, fingerboard and metal strings, and of the Sāraṅgī such as the crafted soundboard Leather.

DA 130 $

Saraswati Veena

The Saraswati Veena, is very different from the Vīṇā of northern India. In fact, the arrangement of the main strings and cikari, the posture and the sound production techniques remain the same.

DA 130 $

Vichitra Vina

The Vichitra Vina, often written Vichitra Veena, saw its splendor towards the beginning of the twentieth century but many indications lead us to think that it is a developed and modified version of a very ancient instrument.

DA 130 $

Surbahar

The Surabahar, often written Surbahar, was created, according to tradition, by Gholām Mohammad Khān, disciple of Piyār Khān and Omrāo Khān. Much larger than the Sitār, it is used, both in the Dhrupad and in the Khayal.

DA 130 $

Tanpura

The Tampura is a fundamental instrument of Indian classical music, present in both the northern and southern systems. The function of this chordophone is to provide a sound in the background, that acts as a drone for improvisation.

DA 130 $

Rabab

In Arabic the term rebab indicates a bowed instrument; in fact the two half-moon inlets that characterize the shape of the Rabab's sound box suggest that it was only later converted into a direct pluck instrument.

DA 130 $

Swarmandala

The Svaramandala is a chordophone used by singers for accompaniment. Kallinatha in his commentary on Śārṅgadeva's Saṅgīta Ratnākara coincides the matakokilavīṇā of Bharata Muni's time with the Svaramaṇḍala,

DA 130 $

Santoor

The Sanṭoor is a dulcimer that has only recently entered Indian classical music scene. It is considered one of the most important developments of the twentieth century in Indian Classical music.

DA 130 $

Bansuri

The transverse flute used in Indian classical music, is capable of reproducing all the delicate movements, ornamentations and nuances of the human voice. This instrument finds references in many sacred texts.

DA 130 $

Mridang

Among the main contributions of Indian instrumental technology, both in terms of production quantity and timbre quality, bifacial convex diaphragms occupy a place of primary importance in Indian Classical Music.

DA 130 $

Sarangi

In the folk and tribal music of different regions of India, various types of stringed instruments are found with a very varied tradition. In the Rajasthani tradition there are more than ten types of Sāraṅgī.

DA 130 $

Pakhawaj

This name derives from two sanskrit terms "pakshe vadya", or from the Persian "pakh awaz" which means soft sounding. The pakahwaj became the main percussion in the north, while the mridangam assumed centrality in the south.

DA 130 $

Sarod

The term Sarod, of Persian origin, means "song" or "melody". All hypotheses regarding the origin of the Sarod, are based on many assumptions and inferences. The general opinion is that it is a developed version of the Rabab,

DA 130 $

Dukkad

One of the oldest and most widespread percussion instruments are the timpani, with a conical-shaped body, the skin of which is often struck with beaters modeled in an arched shape or simply straight, with a knobbed head.

DA 130 $

Shennay

The terms Shahana, Shahanay or Shennay identify the zurna, a wooden aerophone typical of Persian musical culture. In Iran we can still find various styles of this instrument which vary both in size and in the quality of wood used.

DA 130 $

Tabla

Tabla are the percussion instruments that best represent Indian musical culture. This instrument, used mainly in the Hindustani style, accompanies singing, instrumental music and dance.

DA 130 $

Kohl

The khol is the most used percussion in the north-eastern region of India, often linked to the Vaishnava cult of Bengal and Assam, it is also often called mridang since the body is made of terracotta (mrit means clay).

DA 130 $

Mridangam

Probably in the past the pakhavaj and the mridangam presented much fewer differences and are in fact to be associated with a single archetype, but they developed over the centuries within two different styles,

DA 130 $

Kanjeera

Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape with the two ends joined on which a membrane is applied.

DA 130 $