Jabada
In Hindi, the term "Jābaḍā" translates to jaw.
Jabada Tan refers to a type of Tāna that is executed using the movement of the jaw, making it closely associated with vocal techniques. According to some perspectives, any Tāna in which the notes are not distinctly separated from each other is categorized as Jābaḍā Tāna.
Janaka Raga
A method of delineating Ragas is through those that lend their names to the reference scales, known as Ṭhāṭa (Thata).
Both in the Hindustani and Carnatic musical systems, Ragas are categorized based on the types of notes they incorporate. In the Hindustani system, Pt. Batkhande ji identified 10 principal scales, while the Carnatic system features 72 primary scales known as Melakarta.
The terms Janaka raga, melakarta raga, mela raga, karta raga, Sampurna raga, fundamental raga, and primary raga are interchangeable and signify the same concept.
Janaka ragas encompass the complete set of seven notes and are exclusively presented in their ascending form.
On the other hand, Janya Raga is a Raga that originates from one of the fundamental scales.
Jati
As per the Śāstras, Jāti originally referred to the ways (today represented by various Rāgas), but its modern usage involves classifying Rāgas based on quantitative and qualitative criteria.
Quantitative Aspect:
1. Auduva Jati: Includes all pentatonic scales, consisting of five notes.
2. Sadava Jati: Encompasses all hexatonic scales, comprised of six notes.
3. Sampurna Jati: Encompasses all heptatonic scales, consisting of seven notes.
There are cases of mixed categories (Mishra Jati) where the ascending scale differs in number from the descending one.
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There is also a category called Vakra Jāti, where both ascending and descending scales may include movements that do not follow the natural order of the notes.
Qualitative Aspect:
In a qualitative sense, Jāti classifies Rāgas as:
1. Ṥuddha Jāti: Pure class.
2. Chāyālaga Jāti: Class of Rāgas with shades of another Rāga.
3. Saṁkīrṇa Jāti: Class of Rāgas with shades of multiple Rāgas.
Javab Samgat
When the vocalist or instrumentalist presents diverse melodic and rhythmic phrases, subsequently concluding with the original composition, and the accompanying percussionist endeavors to replicate the variations initiated by the former through their own instrument, engaging in a form of "call and response," this is known as Javab Saṁgat.
Saṁgat signifies 'the companion,' while Javāb translates to 'in response.'
It can be affirmed that Pandit Ravi Shankar and Ustad Alla Rakha elevated this aesthetic form to its pinnacle, and Zakhir Hussain continues to captivate audiences with his intuitive mastery of this enchanting interplay.
Jhala
Jhālā
The concluding segment of the Alapa unfolds at a relatively brisk pace, employing a specific type of Ṥabdālaṁkāra, known as Jhala. In stringed instruments such as Sitar, Surbahar, Sarod, and Rudra Vina (Veena), there is a continuous stimulation of the Cikārī, aimed at generating a rhythmic drone that alternates with a melody created on the main strings.
The presentation of the melodic motif is gradual, even though the rhythm intensifies during this phase. The rhythmic possibilities are myriad, constituting a fundamental aspect of instrumental expression.
The rhythm can be structured as follows:
- 4+4 = Da c c c Da c c c
- 3+3+2 = Da c c Da c c Da c
- 3+2+3 = Da c c Da c Da c c
- 2+3+3 = Da c Da c c Da c c
- 3+3+3+3+4 = Da c c Da c c Da c c Da c c Da c c c
- 2+3+2+3+3+3 = Da c Da c c Da c Da c c Da c c Da c c
- 3+3+4+3+3 = Da c c Da c c Da c c c Da c c Da c c
Layakari, rhythmic variations, can also be expressed by playing with the regular beat of four:
- in 5 = Da c Da c c
- in 6 = Da c c Da c c
- in 7 = Da c c Da c c c
The preferred structure involves two or three bars in a regular form and two or one with Layakari:
Da c c c | Da c c c | Da c c c | Da c Da c c |
The fundamental Bola of the Jhālā comprises Ḍā on the melodic string and Rā (c) on the Cikārī, where the combination of four strokes, for example, |ḌāRāRāRā| or |Da c c c|, forms a time unit of four Matras.
Singers emulate this purely instrumental Sabdalamkara with Bola TāNāNāNā or DeReNaTa or even incorporate Mantras such as |HariOmNarayana| within a melody.
Although the phases leading to the Jhala involve both singers and musicians, this phase is distinctly instrumental. There are instances of singers imitating specific rhythmic effects with their voices.
From this point onward, the rhythmic dimension of the Ālāpa becomes overtly explicit. Occasionally, musicians introduce this part directly from the 'Madhya-Druta.' Jhālā is an onomatopoeic term, mirroring the sound produced by the Cikārī. The drone created by three strings, tuned to Pa, the central Sa, and the upper octave's Sa, serves as a backdrop to the Rāga's exposition.
The plectrum or Mizrab swiftly traverses between the Cikārī and the string capable of producing the melody, alternating in various rhythmic combinations. At times, percussion instruments commence accompanying the instrument during this phase, although this usually occurs only in the Laḍī phase.
Jhamkara
An onomatopoeic term commonly used to describe the production of a metallic sound emanating from multiple consonant strings or a nasal sound created in an aesthetically pleasing manner.
Jhara
This term carries two distinct meanings.
Primarily, Jhara refers to a wire positioned at the point of contact between the string and the bridge, influencing the timbre by opening or closing the sound. For instance, on the Tampura, this wire is strategically placed to fully open the string, producing a comprehensive range of essential harmonics for the instrument. In other stringed instruments, it serves as a makeshift solution when it's impractical to smooth the bridge surface.
In a different context, Jhara signifies a type of Ṥabdālaṁkāra originating from the Imdādḵẖānī style. This technique involves an exceptionally rapid succession of Bola Ḍā and Rā, alternating on the melodic string, and is particularly employed during the Jhala phase.
Jhatka
Il termine "Jhaṭ" denota un movimento repentino.
Si tratta di un tipo di Ṥabdālaṁkāra che rappresenta una sequenza di note in un breve fraseggio, prodotto in uno scatto inaspettato e improvviso.
Curiosità: Questo termine indica anche un metodo di sacrificio animale presente in alcune forme eterodosse dell'induismo, in particolare nel sikhismo, dove l'animale viene abbattuto con un colpo secco.
Jod
Jod in Hindi conveys the meaning of 'connection' or also 'through which things are connected.' It serves as the part that links the arrhythmic phase of the Ālāpa with the Tāra-Ālāpa, the rhythmic part, which also incorporates the Jhālā.
For the Joḍ to effectively fulfill its role of conjunction, it needs to be expressed in a subtle manner so as not to introduce any detachment or discordance within the overall performance. Hence, only a slight rhythmic hint is transmitted during this transition phase.
Madh or Madhya - this phase maintains a medium-speed tempo where rhythmic hints first appear. This moment is further divided into three sub-categories:
1. Madhya-Vīlambita
2. Madhya-Madhya
3. Madhya-Druta
These are relative terms without specific time measurements, as the tempo depends on the musician and audience. However, it is essential to consider that some instruments allow for a more sustained performance than others.
Madhya-Vīlambita: Musicians refer to this phase as 'Ḍagar kī Baḍhat,' where Ḍa, Ga, and Ra strokes on the Vīṇā increase in speed. Factors like Cikārī, Mīḍ, and Syuṁt (Āśa) become more frequent compared to the previous Vīlambita. Selective use of the sixty-three Alaṁkāras is incorporated.
Madhya-Madhya: Musicians term this phase 'Madh Joḍ' or sometimes 'Barābar Kī Joḍ.' 'Barābar' in Hindi takes on the meaning of 'flowing' or 'well-suited.' Gamaka-Joḍ is used during this phase, and Mīḍ and Syuṁt (Āśa) decrease, with notes expressed independently. Cikārī is used to a minimum, and the appearance may resemble the Khaṇḍāra Vāṅī, introducing the Viḍāra composition style.
Madhya-Druta: Some musicians refer to it as 'Laḍī-Joḍ.' It remains similar to Madhya-Madhya but slightly faster, with a further decrease in the use of Cikārī.
Druta: This phase is marked by a higher-speed tempo and the total absence of Cikārī. It is also divided into three sub-categories:
1. Druta -Vīlambita
2. Druta -Madhya
3. Druta -Druta
Details about these subdivisions are not necessary, with reference to the previous ones sufficing.
Javari
This term originates from the Sanskrit 'Jivā,' meaning 'soul.' In certain chordophones within the Hindustani tradition, the surface of the bridge, which rests on the harmonic plane or Tablī, is referred to as Joyārī or alternatively Javārī.
Bridges can be crafted from materials such as horn, bone, wood, or metal. The strings rest on this curved surface, creating an angle that defines the expression of natural harmonics, extends the duration of vibration, and influences the timbre and sound quality of the instrument.
The meticulous technique of cleaning this surface, often subject to stress from the strings and the inherent softness of the material, showcases the virtuosity of luthiers. When discussing instrument makers, the concept of lineage applies, but unfortunately, certain skills and refinements fade away with the craftsman.
The cleansing process of the Javārī is known as 'Javārī Sāf Karṇā.' It is believed that when a singer produces a note rich in harmonics, Javārī is inherent in it.
In esoteric realms, drawing a parallel between the human body and the instrument's body, the Javārī corresponds to the Kundalinī, the center from which the voice emanates.
Jodi Tar
'Joḍi' translates to 'a pair,' and 'Tār' to 'rope.'
In the Sitār's initial design, there were two adjacent strings tuned to the Sa of the low octave. Presently, there is only one string that maintains this pitch, yet it is still referred to as Juḍi Tār, Nayaki Tar, or Kharaj.
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The main instruments of Indian Classical Music
The Sitar is the icon of Indian Classical music. The structure and tonal quality of this instrument is the result of several years of hard work and dedication of both the musicians and the master luthiers.
Goṭu Vādyama is a modified and developed form of Ektantri Veena, appeared on the scene of the Carnatic music system about hundred fifty years ago, it can be considered the Vichitra Veena of South India.
The name Rudra Vina, often written Rudra Veena, first appears in Nārada's Saṃgīta Makaranda between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and is supposed to be a derivation of the Kinnarī Vīṇā.
The Taus, the Dilruba and the Esraj are North Indian bowed instruments, all three with hybrid characteristics of the Sitar, such as long necks, fingerboard and metal strings, and of the Sāraṅgī such as the crafted soundboard Leather.
The Saraswati Veena, is very different from the Vīṇā of northern India. In fact, the arrangement of the main strings and cikari, the posture and the sound production techniques remain the same.
The Vichitra Vina, often written Vichitra Veena, saw its splendor towards the beginning of the twentieth century but many indications lead us to think that it is a developed and modified version of a very ancient instrument.
The Surabahar, often written Surbahar, was created, according to tradition, by Gholām Mohammad Khān, disciple of Piyār Khān and Omrāo Khān. Much larger than the Sitār, it is used, both in the Dhrupad and in the Khayal.
The Tampura is a fundamental instrument of Indian classical music, present in both the northern and southern systems. The function of this chordophone is to provide a sound in the background, that acts as a drone for improvisation.
In Arabic the term rebab indicates a bowed instrument; in fact the two half-moon inlets that characterize the shape of the Rabab's sound box suggest that it was only later converted into a direct pluck instrument.
The Svaramandala is a chordophone used by singers for accompaniment. Kallinatha in his commentary on Śārṅgadeva's Saṅgīta Ratnākara coincides the matakokilavīṇā of Bharata Muni's time with the Svaramaṇḍala,
The Sanṭoor is a dulcimer that has only recently entered Indian classical music scene. It is considered one of the most important developments of the twentieth century in Indian Classical music.
The transverse flute used in Indian classical music, is capable of reproducing all the delicate movements, ornamentations and nuances of the human voice. This instrument finds references in many sacred texts.
Among the main contributions of Indian instrumental technology, both in terms of production quantity and timbre quality, bifacial convex diaphragms occupy a place of primary importance in Indian Classical Music.
In the folk and tribal music of different regions of India, various types of stringed instruments are found with a very varied tradition. In the Rajasthani tradition there are more than ten types of Sāraṅgī.
This name derives from two sanskrit terms "pakshe vadya", or from the Persian "pakh awaz" which means soft sounding. The pakahwaj became the main percussion in the north, while the mridangam assumed centrality in the south.
The term Sarod, of Persian origin, means "song" or "melody". All hypotheses regarding the origin of the Sarod, are based on many assumptions and inferences. The general opinion is that it is a developed version of the Rabab,
One of the oldest and most widespread percussion instruments are the timpani, with a conical-shaped body, the skin of which is often struck with beaters modeled in an arched shape or simply straight, with a knobbed head.
The terms Shahana, Shahanay or Shennay identify the zurna, a wooden aerophone typical of Persian musical culture. In Iran we can still find various styles of this instrument which vary both in size and in the quality of wood used.
Tabla are the percussion instruments that best represent Indian musical culture. This instrument, used mainly in the Hindustani style, accompanies singing, instrumental music and dance.
The khol is the most used percussion in the north-eastern region of India, often linked to the Vaishnava cult of Bengal and Assam, it is also often called mridang since the body is made of terracotta (mrit means clay).
Probably in the past the pakhavaj and the mridangam presented much fewer differences and are in fact to be associated with a single archetype, but they developed over the centuries within two different styles,
Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape with the two ends joined on which a membrane is applied.
The sound production techniques and the structure are identical to the shennay, the differences are mostly related to the dimensions and some small details. The double reed is fixed on a metal support which fits onto the wooden body.
The violin, which in India is also called Behalā, as we know, is one of the first Western instruments to have been introduced, more than a century and a half ago, into Indian music by Baluswamy Dikshitar (1786-1858), a great music scholar caranatica.
The Suraśṛṁgāra, often written Sursingar in many respects similar to the Surabahar, is a reinterpretation of the Rabab created in Benares under the supervision of Zafar Khān.
The moorchang, is a typical example of a universal instrument. In Italy it is a popular instrument called the wind chime or marranzano and although it takes on different forms, it is used all over the world.
The tavil belongs to the folk music tradition of South India, and is often played with a wind ensemble called periya melam. This percussion has a barrel shape with a single-layered stem, obtained from a single cylindrical block of wood.
Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape.
The term bhanda vadya is used to indicate all terracotta percussion instruments with a spherical body, practically real vases of various shapes and sizes.
The term "Mohan veena" can denote one of two distinct plucked string instruments utilized in Indian classical music, particularly in Hindustani classical music, which is traditionally associated with the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent.