Chakradara
Every time a Ṭukḍā, Tihāī, Tāna or Toḍā is repeated one or more times to reach Sama this is adjectived by the term Cakradāra. Usually Ṭukḍā or Toḍā are repeated three times (or multiples of three). When repeated three times they may seem like Tihāī and it is often difficult to distinguish their nature. The Tihāī itself is repeating a phrase three times in order to reach Sama, when you are in front of a Cakradāra Tihāī you will have the sensation of hearing a melodic or rhythmic phrase that is played three times three, for example in nine cycles.
For example:
Tihai: NR GM P- NR | GM P- NR GM | Px
with the same Tihai one can have such a Cakradāra
NR GM P- NR | GM P- NR GM | NR GM P- NR | GM P- NR GM | NR GM P- NR | GM P- NR GM | P
Cala
In a broad sense, the term generally conveys 'the way' or 'the style.' However, it might specifically pertain to the 'style' of Dhrupada as opposed to the style of Ṭhumrī. For instance, one could discuss a straightforward Cāla or a intricate Cāla when referring to the manner, or describe it as a slow Cāla or a fast Cāla when considering the tempo. Furthermore, when Cāla takes on the meaning of style, it can be used to distinguish between styles, such as the Seniyā style as opposed to the Masīdkhānī style. Although both Cāla and Calana stem from the same root meaning 'to move,' their terminological application differs, albeit subtly.
Calana
The literal interpretation pertains to 'movement' or 'the manner of moving.' In the musical realm, it encompasses conventions related to the use of notes in different Rāgas and the techniques employed in the development of a Rāga. In the percussion context, although not universally agreed upon, this term aligns with Kāyadā (Qāedā).
Capaka
Bols played using the flat palm of the left hand in percussion. In the case of stringed instruments, the sound is modified by positioning the palm of the left hand on all the strings, falling under the Ṥabdālaṁkāra category.
Caturanga
Among the various meanings associated with the term 'raṅga,' in this context, 'variegated' is a fitting interpretation. Conversely, 'Catuh' straightforwardly denotes four. The combination of these terms implies a type of Khayal composition characterized by four diverse elements:
1. Melodic composition or song
2. Tarānā, involving syllables without specific meaning but rhythmically well-articulated
3. Rhythmic and melodic articulation of the notes
4. Composition of articulated rhyming phrases for use in percussion.
Regrettably, such compositions are rarely witnessed in contemporary times.
Cauguna
This term denotes a shift in dynamic rhythm and melodic variations, indicating a fourfold increase in speed within a single matra.
Cautaal
One of the frequently employed rhythmic cycles in Dhrupada compositions comprises twelve Mātrā and is typically presented at a measured pace. However, within the Dagar Gharana, this cycle is frequently employed even for compositions with a brisk tempo. Presented below are two renditions of the Teka.
Dhā Dhā| Dīn Tā | Kite Dhā | Dhīn Tā | Teţe Katā | Gadi Gana
Dhā Dhā | Dhīn Tā | Kat Teke | Dhīn Tā | Teţe Katā | Gadi Ghene
Chehguna
This term identifies a change of dynamism in rhythmic and melodic variations where the sixfold speed is shown within a matra.
Chaap
The poet's signature. This term identifies the name of the composer of a Dhrupada composition who usually appears in the last stanza called Ābhoga.
Chanda
When a sequence, whether it be a song or any form of composition comprising articulate but nonsensical sounds, with or without melody, is structured to exhibit a distinct and consistent arrangement of accented and unaccented beats, coupled with an agreeable tone, it embodies the qualities of rhythm or Chanda.
Chanda serves as the foundation for all Tāla, Mātra, and Laya, emerging as a means to characterize the aspect of music associated with Tāla and rhythmic compositions, setting it apart from the Ālāpa.
Chayalaga
'Chāyā' can be rendered as shadow, and 'Laga' can be understood as 'attached with.' A Rāga crafted with influences borrowed from another Rāga is classified as Chāyālaga. Clearly, it is a Rāga formed by the amalgamation of two or more Rāgas. There are three categories of Rāgas:
1. Ṥuddha or pure
2. Chāyālaga
3. Saṁkīrṇa
Ched
Derived from the Hindi term 'Cheḍnā,' signifying 'to produce a sound by plucking or beating,' it refers to the stimulation of strings, achievable through plucking or striking. This action is observed in instruments such as the piano, dulcimer, or santoor. The strings that are activated for rhythmic purposes or to generate a drone are commonly described by the adjective 'Cheḍ.'
Chut
It originates from the Hindi term 'Chūṭnā,' meaning 'to run,' but within the musical context, it signifies 'jump.' Specifically, it denotes an octave interval. The Chūṭ falls under the category of Ṥabdālaṁkāra. In common usage, apart from the second interval, the other intervals are also referred to as Chūṭ. For instance, in a pentatonic scale like:
S R M P N
the fourth intervals SM, RP, or fourth MN are considered as such. Originally, only the octave interval S Ṡ was designated as Chūṭ.
Cikari
An onomatopoeic term that signifies strings activated solely for rhythmic purposes or to produce a drone. Such strings can be found in instruments like the Sitar, Vicitra Veena, and Rudra Veena. They play a significant role throughout the Raga exposition, gaining particular importance in the Jhala and Tonk Jhala sections.
Cilla
Chilla (Persian: چله, Arabic: أربعين, both literally meaning "forty"), also referred to as Chilla-nashini, is a spiritual discipline observed in Sufism, prevalent in Indian and Persian traditions. In this ritual, a mendicant or ascetic endeavors to maintain a seated position within a circle, engaging in meditation techniques without consuming food for a continuous period of 40 days and nights, mirroring the observance of Arba'een.
In the practice phase, individuals aspiring to become professional musicians undertake a vow known as Cillā, lasting for forty days. This commitment involves sacrificing hours of sleep and eating to dedicate ample time daily for practicing the skills acquired over years of learning.
The Cillā is frequently sustained, sometimes without interruption, for an extended period—lasting five, ten, or even twelve years—before the mentor grants approval for a public performance.
Classical or Sangeet
A form of artistic presentation rooted in the Vedas, Saṁgīta encompasses singing, instrumental music, and dance. Often simplistically translated as "classical music," the term Saṁgīta actually denotes a combination of singing, instrumental music, and dance. It's essential to note that the term "music" alone doesn't encompass dance, and the term "classical" may suggest a secular theme. However, Indian music has spiritual origins and originated in temple settings.
Certainly, the nature of artistic expression can undergo significant changes over a few decades, representing the natural evolution of any living art form. Nevertheless, certain conventions persist, aligning with what is defined as classical or Saṁgīta.
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The main instruments of Indian Classical Music
The Sitar is the icon of Indian Classical music. The structure and tonal quality of this instrument is the result of several years of hard work and dedication of both the musicians and the master luthiers.
Goṭu Vādyama is a modified and developed form of Ektantri Veena, appeared on the scene of the Carnatic music system about hundred fifty years ago, it can be considered the Vichitra Veena of South India.
The name Rudra Vina, often written Rudra Veena, first appears in Nārada's Saṃgīta Makaranda between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and is supposed to be a derivation of the Kinnarī Vīṇā.
The Taus, the Dilruba and the Esraj are North Indian bowed instruments, all three with hybrid characteristics of the Sitar, such as long necks, fingerboard and metal strings, and of the Sāraṅgī such as the crafted soundboard Leather.
The Saraswati Veena, is very different from the Vīṇā of northern India. In fact, the arrangement of the main strings and cikari, the posture and the sound production techniques remain the same.
The Vichitra Vina, often written Vichitra Veena, saw its splendor towards the beginning of the twentieth century but many indications lead us to think that it is a developed and modified version of a very ancient instrument.
The Surabahar, often written Surbahar, was created, according to tradition, by Gholām Mohammad Khān, disciple of Piyār Khān and Omrāo Khān. Much larger than the Sitār, it is used, both in the Dhrupad and in the Khayal.
The Tampura is a fundamental instrument of Indian classical music, present in both the northern and southern systems. The function of this chordophone is to provide a sound in the background, that acts as a drone for improvisation.
In Arabic the term rebab indicates a bowed instrument; in fact the two half-moon inlets that characterize the shape of the Rabab's sound box suggest that it was only later converted into a direct pluck instrument.
The Svaramandala is a chordophone used by singers for accompaniment. Kallinatha in his commentary on Śārṅgadeva's Saṅgīta Ratnākara coincides the matakokilavīṇā of Bharata Muni's time with the Svaramaṇḍala,
The Sanṭoor is a dulcimer that has only recently entered Indian classical music scene. It is considered one of the most important developments of the twentieth century in Indian Classical music.
The transverse flute used in Indian classical music, is capable of reproducing all the delicate movements, ornamentations and nuances of the human voice. This instrument finds references in many sacred texts.
Among the main contributions of Indian instrumental technology, both in terms of production quantity and timbre quality, bifacial convex diaphragms occupy a place of primary importance in Indian Classical Music.
In the folk and tribal music of different regions of India, various types of stringed instruments are found with a very varied tradition. In the Rajasthani tradition there are more than ten types of Sāraṅgī.
This name derives from two sanskrit terms "pakshe vadya", or from the Persian "pakh awaz" which means soft sounding. The pakahwaj became the main percussion in the north, while the mridangam assumed centrality in the south.
The term Sarod, of Persian origin, means "song" or "melody". All hypotheses regarding the origin of the Sarod, are based on many assumptions and inferences. The general opinion is that it is a developed version of the Rabab,
One of the oldest and most widespread percussion instruments are the timpani, with a conical-shaped body, the skin of which is often struck with beaters modeled in an arched shape or simply straight, with a knobbed head.
The terms Shahana, Shahanay or Shennay identify the zurna, a wooden aerophone typical of Persian musical culture. In Iran we can still find various styles of this instrument which vary both in size and in the quality of wood used.
Tabla are the percussion instruments that best represent Indian musical culture. This instrument, used mainly in the Hindustani style, accompanies singing, instrumental music and dance.
The khol is the most used percussion in the north-eastern region of India, often linked to the Vaishnava cult of Bengal and Assam, it is also often called mridang since the body is made of terracotta (mrit means clay).
Probably in the past the pakhavaj and the mridangam presented much fewer differences and are in fact to be associated with a single archetype, but they developed over the centuries within two different styles,
Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape with the two ends joined on which a membrane is applied.
The sound production techniques and the structure are identical to the shennay, the differences are mostly related to the dimensions and some small details. The double reed is fixed on a metal support which fits onto the wooden body.
The violin, which in India is also called Behalā, as we know, is one of the first Western instruments to have been introduced, more than a century and a half ago, into Indian music by Baluswamy Dikshitar (1786-1858), a great music scholar caranatica.
The Suraśṛṁgāra, often written Sursingar in many respects similar to the Surabahar, is a reinterpretation of the Rabab created in Benares under the supervision of Zafar Khān.
The moorchang, is a typical example of a universal instrument. In Italy it is a popular instrument called the wind chime or marranzano and although it takes on different forms, it is used all over the world.
The tavil belongs to the folk music tradition of South India, and is often played with a wind ensemble called periya melam. This percussion has a barrel shape with a single-layered stem, obtained from a single cylindrical block of wood.
Frame drums are very popular in India and the simplicity of manufacturing these instruments has facilitated their diffusion. They are in fact a thin strip of iron or wood bent into a circular shape.
The term bhanda vadya is used to indicate all terracotta percussion instruments with a spherical body, practically real vases of various shapes and sizes.
The term "Mohan veena" can denote one of two distinct plucked string instruments utilized in Indian classical music, particularly in Hindustani classical music, which is traditionally associated with the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent.